The Wallacean Region

The Wallacean Region comprises a group of mainly Indonesian islands that includes the Philippines, Sulawesi, all of the Lesser Sunda Islands east of Bali, the Moluccas Archipelago, and many smaller islands. Essentially a transition zone between the Sundaic Region on the one hand and the Papua-Melanesian and Australian realms on the other, it consequently shares biogeographic elements of each in addition to many unique features of its own. It is named for Alfred Russel Wallace, the first to the first to draw a physical line between Asian and Australasian biogeographic regions. The fauna of Indonesia and Australasia was, for Wallace, what that of the Galápagos was for Charles Darwin: one of the foundations of the theory of natural selection. One hundred and fifty years ago he wrote that South America and Africa, although separated by the Atlantic, do not differ so much by far as do Asia and Australia. Modern humans are known to have lived in the Wallacean Region for tens of thousands of years, having first arrived from southern Asia by way of the sunken landmasses of Sundaland and Sahul. They were eventually assimilated by the Austronesian peoples who arrived by seaborne migration between 3000 and 1500 bc, most likely from Taiwan.

 

Species and subspecies

The small Sulawesi cuscus (Strigocuscus celebensis) is a type of arboreal marsupial that remains widespread on Sulawesi, Wowoni, Buton, and the islands of Great Sangir and Siau in the Sangir Islands, but is everywhere threatened by hunting and habitat destruction. 

The Sulawesi giant squirrel (Rubrisciurus rubriventer) is widespread on Sulawesi and on the island of Great Sangir, where it is threatened by hunting. 

The grey flying fox (Pteropus griseus) is found on Sulawesi and its satellite islands, the Moloccas, and possibly on Flores in the Lesser Sunda Islands. It is threatened by bushmeat hunting on Sulawesi and by loss of habitat throughout its range. 

Keast’s tube-nosed fruit bat (Nyctimene keasti) is known for certain from the Tanimbar and Babar islands in the Moluccas, the Kai Islands in the Lesser Sunda Islands, and from Gag Island in the Raja Ampat Islands. It may also occur on Timor, Flores and other islands as well. 

The Sulawesi fruit bat (Acerodon celebensis) is found across Sulawesi as well as on Buton, the Togean Islands, Selayar Island, and the Sangir Islands, but is everywhere threatened by hunting for food. Many colonies have been extirpated, and the species remains unprotected. 

Peters’ horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus keyensis) is known sporadically from the Lesser Sunda Islands and the Moluccas. 

The Indonesian tomb bat (Taphozous achates) is known sporadically from the Lesser Sunda Islands and the Moluccas. 

Bernstein’s scrubfowl (Megapodius bernsteinii) is confined to the Banggai and Sula Islands east of Sulawesi, where it has suffered significant declines due to loss of habitat and hunting pressure. 

The Wallacean box turtle (Cuora amboinensis amobinensis) is found throughout Sulawesi, the Moluccas, the Lesser Sunda Islands and possibly the Philippines, but is everywhere threatened by overcollection. 

The Sulawesi black rat snake (Ptyas dipsas) is a littleknown species from an undefined area of Sulawesi and, possibly, the island of Halmahera in the Moluccas. 

The Philippines 

The Philippines (Pilipinas in Filipino) are an archipelago of over 7600 islands located north-east of Borneo and south of Taiwan. The islands are volcanic in origin and were originally covered by lush rainforest inhabited by a fascinating range of endemic species. At the beginning of the twentieth century this was largely intact, although since the period of World War II almost all forest has been destroyed and replaced by cultivation. Hunting is also a major problem to the island’s wildlife. Both of these factors must, of course, be seen in the light of an astonishing ongoing population increase, which has already risen to well over 100 million people. 

The Philippine long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis philippinensis) is still found throughout the Philippines, but is everywhere threatened by hunting and habitat destruction. 

The Philippine tarsier (Carlito syrichta) is a type of nocturnal primate found in the central and southern Philippines. The nominate form (C. s. syrichta) is found on Leyte, Samar, Dinagat, Biliran, and Maripipi in the south-eastern Philippines. The Mindanao tarsier (C. s. carbonarius) occurs patchily on Mindanao and on Basilan in the Sulu Archipelago. Both are threatened by loss of habitat and collection for use as food or pets. 

The Philippine brown deer (Rusa marianna) still occurs on many islands (with introduced populations occurring as well in the Mariana and Caroline Islands), but is threatened by intense hunting pressure and habitat destruction. There are four subspecies, which will be discussed below. The nominate form, the Luzon brown deer (R. m. marianna), occurs on Luzon and other islands of the northern Philippines. The Philippine spotted deer (R. alfredi) is widespread but rare and patchily distributed in the Western Visayan islands of the central Philippines. Historically it was found on Panay, Negros, Cebu, Masbate, Guimaras and probably the Ticao Islands, but today it is confined to the mountains of western Panay and in a few scattered remnants of forest on Negros. 

Several species and subspecies of wild boar (Sus) are endemic to the Philippines. The Philippine warty pig (S. philippensis) is still found in scattered pockets across the Philippines. Nevertheless, it continues to be threatened by hunting persecution by farmers (who consider it a pest) and habitat destruction. The North Philippine warty pig (S. p. philippensis) occurs on Luzon, Polillo, Catanduanes and, formerly, Marinduque. The South Philippine warty pig (Sus p. mindanensis) is found on Mindanao, Samar, Letye, Biliran, Bohol, Camiguin Sul, Basilan, and a few associated smaller islands. The Visayan warty pig (S. cebifrons) is native to the Western Visayan islands in the central Philippines, but has been extirpated from at least three of the six islands where it was historically known to occur, including Cebu. The Negros warty pig (S. c. negrinus) survives in remaining forest fragments on Negros, Panay, and possibly Masbate. 

The Visayan leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis rabori) is confined to Panay, Negros and Cebu, where it is threatened by loss of habitat. 

The Philippine binturong (Arctictis binturong whitei) is a large viverrid known from the islands of Calauit and Palawan in the south-western Philippines. 

The golden-crowned fruit bat (Acerodon jubatus) is divided into three subspecies. The nominate form (A. j. jubatus) is still found widely throughout the Philippines but is everywhere threatened by bushmeat hunting. 

The Philippine naked-backed fruit bat (Dobsonia chapmani) is historically known from the islands of Cebu and Negros in the south-central Philippines, where it was last recorded in 2003. It may possibly be extinct, a victim of habitat destruction and hunting. 

The Philippine tube-nosed fruit bat (Nyctimene rabori) is found on the islands of Cebu, Negros, Sibuyan, and possibly Panay in the south-central Philippines, where it is threatened by habitat destruction. 

The Philippine large leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros coronatus) is known only from a handful of specimens collected throughout the Philippines. 

The Philippine eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi) is the largest eagle in the world, having a wingspan of almost 2.5 m. It is also one of the most threatened species in the Philippines, occurring only in eastern Luzon, Samar, Leyte, and Mindanao, with Mount Apo National Park on the latter island supporting the majority of the population. It has long been a favourite target for trophy hunters. 

Two species of hawk-eagle (Nisaetus) endemic to the Philippines are threatened by loss of habitat and hunting. The northern Philippine hawk-eagle (N. philippensis) is now confined to a few localities on Luzon and Mindoro, having been extirpated from a number of smaller islands. Pinsker’s hawk-eagle (N. pinskeri) remains relatively widespread if rare across the southern and eastern Philippines. 

The Philippine eagle-owl (Bubo philippensis) is a widespread but naturally rare species divided into two subspecies. The northern Philippine eagle-owl (B. p. philippensis) is found on Luzon and Catanduanes. The southern Philippine eagle-owl (B. p. mindanensis) occurs on Mindanao, Leyte, Samar and Bohol. Both are threatened by habitat destruction and hunting. 

The giant scops owl (Otus gurneyi) is confined to the islands of Samar, Mindanao, Dinagat, and Siargao in the south-eastern Philippines. The Visayan scops owl (O. nigrorum) is confined to Negros and Panay in the west-central Philippines. Both are threatened by habitat destruction. 

The northern rufous hornbill (Buceros hydrocorax) is confined to Luzon and, marginally, Marinduque. The southern rufous hornbill (B. mindanensis) is divided into two subspecies. The nominate form (B. m. mindanensis) is found on Dinagat, Siargao, Mindanao, Balut, Bucas, and Talicud. The yellow-billed southern rufous hornbill (B. m. semigaleatus) occurs on Samar, Leyte, Bohol, Panaon, Biliran, Calicoan, and Buad. All are threatened by habitat destruction and hunting. 

The Visayan hornbill (Penelopides panini) is divided into two subspecies, one of which is now extinct and will be discussed below. The nominate form (P. p. panini) is found on Panay, Negros, Masbate and Guimaras, where it is seriously threatened by habitat destruction and hunting.

The rufous-headed hornbill (Rhabdotorrhinus waldeni) is historically thought to have occurred on Negros, Panay and Guimaras in the west-central Philippines. Owing to habitat destruction, hunting and nest poaching, it is now absent from Guimaras, and is now largely confined to protected areas on the other two islands. 

The Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia) was described as common throughout the Philippines during the mid-twentieth century, but has since undergone a catastrophic decline due to habitat destruction and trapping for the cagebird trade. Today, only around 1000 birds survive on Palawan and its satellite islands, Bohol, Samar and in the Sulu Archipelago. It has possibly been extirpated from Mindanao. 

The Philippine duck (Anas luzonica) has historically been recorded from all of the major islands of the Philippines and a number of smaller ones, but seems to be mainly found on Luzon and Mindanao. The species appears to have undergone a major decline in the mid-twentieth century, however, and today is found only in a few scattered freshwater and mangrove areas. 

The spotted imperial pigeon (Ducula carola) is divided into three subspecies, which are threatened by habitat destruction and hunting. The nominate form (D. c. carola) is found on Luzon, Mindoro and Sibuyan. The Visayan spotted imperial pigeon (D. c. nigorum) is confined to Negros and Siquijor. 

The dark-eared brown dove (Phapitreron brunneiceps) is a rare species known from Mindanao and Basilan in the southern Philippines, although it has not been recorded from the latter island since 1937. 

The Philippine collared dove (Streptopelia dusumieri) remains widespread throughout the Philippines, but is everywhere in decline owing to competition with two species of non-native dove. The species has also been introduced into the Mariana Islands and parts of eastern Malaysia. 

Keay’s bleeding-heart (Gallicolumba keayi) is a rare type of ground dove confined to a few localities on Negros and Panay in the west-central Philippines. Reichenbach’s bleeding-heart (G. crinigera) is divided into two subspecies. The nominate form (G. c. crinigera) is known from Samar, Leyte, Bohol, Dinagat and Mindanao, where it is threatened by loss of habitat. 

Whitehead’s swiftlet (Aerodramus whiteheadi) is found disjunctly in the mountains of the northern and southern Philippines, perhaps suggesting that more than one species may be involved. The southern Whitehead’s swiftlet (A. w. origenis) is known only from a few scattered records on Mindanao and Negros. 

The southern sooty woodpecker (Mulleripicus fuliginosus) is confined to lowland forests on Mindanao, Leyte and Samar in the south-eastern Philippines. 

The yellow-faced flameback (Chrysocolaptes xanthocephalus) is a type of woodpecker known from Negros and Panay, and at least formerly also on Guimaras, Masbate and Ticao in the central Philippines. The red-headed flameback (C. erythrocephalus) is found on Balabac, Palawan, Busuanga, and Calamian in the eastern Philippines. Both are threatened by loss of habitat. 

Steer’s wattled broadbill (Sarcophanops steerii) is a type of passerine bird that was historically widespread and common on Mindanao, Basilan, Dinagat and Siargao in the southern Philippines. Owing to extensive habitat destruction it is now confined to a handful of localities. The Visayan wattled broadbill (S. samarensis) is confined to Samar, Leyte and Bohol in the east-central Philippines, where it has only rarely been recorded since 1980. 

The Visayan flowerpecker (Dicaeum haematostictum) was historically widespread and common on Panay, Negros and Guimaras in the west-central Philippines. The species has undergone a significant decline due to loss of habitat, and appears to have been extirpated from Guimaras. The scarlet-collared flowerpecker (D. retrocinctum) was long thought to be confined to Mindoro, where it was abundant up until the 1980s, but has since declined significantly. In the early 1990s it was unexpectedly discovered in small numbers on Panay and Negros. 

The streak-breasted bulbul (Hypsipetes siquijorensis) is a type of passerine bird divided into three subspecies, which will be discussed below. 

The rufous-lored kingfisher (Todiramphus winchelli) remains fairly widespread within the smaller islands and coastal lowland forests of the Philippines, but appears to be highly sensitive to habitat destruction. 

The Philippine dwarf kingfisher (Ceyx melanurus) is divided into three subspecies. The northern Philippine dwarf kingfisher (C. m. melanurus) is found on Luzon, Polillo, Alabat, and Catanduanes. The central Philippine dwarf kingfisher (C. m. samarensis) occurs on Samar and Leyte. The southern Philippine dwarf kingfisher (C. m. mindanensis) is confined to Mindanao and Basilan. All are threatened by loss of habitat. 

The ashy ground thrush (Geokichla cinerea) is confined to parts of Luzon and Mindoro in the northern Philippines.

The Philippine leafbird (Chloropsis flavipennis) is historically known from Samar, Leyte, Cebu and Mindanao in the south-central Philippines. It was last recorded on Cebu in 1920, from Leyte in 1964, and from Samar in 1970, and now appears to be entirely confined to two localities on Mindanao. 

The Visayan miniature tit-babbler (Micromacronus leytensis) is confined to Samar, Biliran and Leyte in the southeastern Philippines. 

The flame-templed pygmy babbler (Dasycrotapha speciosa) is confined to a few localities on Panay and Negros in the west-central Philippines. The Visayan pygmy babbler (D. pygmaea) is confined to Samar and Leyte in the south-eastern Philippines, where it is rare. 

The white-throated jungle flycatcher (Vauriella albigularis) was historically known from Negros, Guimaras and Panay in the west-central Philippines. It was last recorded on Guimaras in 1887 and has presumably been extirpated from there, and has been much reduced on the other two islands due to habitat destruction.

The ashy-breasted flycatcher (Muscicapa randi) is a rare species known disjunctly from Luzon, Negros and Samar.

The little slaty flycatcher (Ficedula basilanica) is known from the islands of Mindanao, Samar, Leyte, Dinagat and Basilan. Formerly common, it now appears to be rare and largely confined to a few localities on Mindanao. 

The azure-breasted pitta (Pitta steerii) is a passerine bird known from the islands of Mindanao, Bohol, Leyte and Samar in the south-eastern Philippines. Seemingly always rare and localized, since 1980 it has only been recorded at two sites on Bohol and one on Mindanao. It was last recorded on Leyte in 1964, and from Samar in 1969. 

The celestial monarch (Hypothymis coelestis) is a passerine bird that has always been considered somewhat rare. The nominate form (H. c. coelestis) is known from Luzon, Samar, Dinagat, Mindanao, Tawi-Tawi, and Basilan, although it appears to have been extirpated from the latter island. The Visayan celestial monarch (H. c. rabori) was historically known from Sibuyan and Negros in the south-central Philippines. Last recorded in 1959, it may possibly be extinct. 

The bicoloured water-redstart (Phoenicurus bicolor) was historically known from Mindoro and Luzon in the northwestern Philippines, but is now confined to the mountains of the latter. 

The green-faced parrotfinch (Erythrura viridifacies) is confined to Luzon, Negros and Panay in the northern and central Philippines. 

The white-winged cicadabird (Edolisoma ostentum) is a type of cuckooshrike endemic to the Western Visayas, where it is known from Panay, Negros and Guimaras (although it is almost certainly extirpated from the latter island). It was formerly widespread on Negros as well but is now confined to a few localities. The black-bibbed cicadabird (E. mindanense) is divided into a number of subspecies found throughout the Philippines. The Mindanao black-bibbed cicadabird (E. m. mindanense) is confined to Mindanao and Basilan in the southern Philippines. Ripley’s black-bibbed cicadabird (E. m. ripleyi) is found on Samar, Biliran, Leyte and Bohol. Everett’s black-bibbed cicadabird (E. m. everetti) occurs on Jolo, Lapac, Tawitawi, and Bongao in the south-western Philippines. All are threatened by loss of habitat. 

The Visayan rhabdornis (Rhabdornis rabori) is a rare type of bird known only from a few forest patches on Panay and Negros in the west-central Philippines. 

The Philippine crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis) is a relatively small freshwater species that historically occurred on all of the larger islands. A victim of relentless exploitation combined with unsustainable fishing methods (such as dynamite fishing), it is today known for certain only from a few areas of Luzon and Mindanao. 

The Philippine sailfin lizard (Hydrosaurus pustulatus) is a relatively large agama named for the sail-like structure of its tail and semi-aquatic habits. It occurs in suitable habitat throughout the Philippines, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and overcollection for the international pet trade. 

The marbled crested lizard (Bronchocela marmorata) is known for certain only from Luzon and Sibuyan in the northern Philippines. 

The Philippine gliding dragon (Draco mindanensis) is confined to Mindanao, Leyte, Dinagat and Samar in the southern and eastern Philippines. 

The orange-spotted smooth-scaled gecko (Pseudogekko brevipes) is known from a few scattered localities across the islands of the central Philippines (Samar, Negros, Bohol, Siquijor, Cebu, Leyte, and Panay). 

Griffin’s keel-scaled tree skink (Dasia griffini) is known only from a few specimens collected from Palawan and Mindoro in the west-central Philippines. 

Semper’s skink (Lipinia semperi) is known only from historical records originating in Mindanao, Camiguin, and possibly Samar. Girard’s skink (L. vulcania) is known only from two specimens, the first collected from Mindanao in 1857 and the second from Luzon in 1956. 

The slender four-fingered burrowing skink (Brachymeles elerae) is a rare species with an undefined distribution within the Philippines. 

The spotted-bellied kukri snake (Oligodon modestum) is known from north-eastern Mindanao, Negros, Tablas, Panay, Cebu, and possibly Luzon. 

The Philippine bridal snake (Lycodon philippinus) was historically known from a number of islands, but in recent years has been reported only from northern Luzon, Marinduque, and Panay. 

Taylor’s keelback (Tropidonophis negrosensis) is a type of snake known sporadically from Cebu, Masbate, Negros, Panay, Basilan, and Mindanao. It may also occur on Luzon, Samar, and Lubang. 

The Philippine whip snake (Dryophiops philippina) was historically common throughout the Philippines, but has undergone a significant decline and is now rarely recorded. 

McNamara’s burrowing snake (Pseudorabdion mcnamarae) is known only from Negros, Panay, Masbate, Cebu, and Romblon in the west-central Philippines. 

The Cabilian blood frog (Sanguirana albotuberculata) is known only from a few localities on Leyte, Samar, and Mindanao in the south-eastern Philippines. 

The Polillo ground frog (Platymantis polillensis) is found patchily on Luzon and Polillo in the northern Philippines. Lawton’s wrinkled ground frog (P. lawtoni) is confined to Tablas and Sibuyan in the west-central Philippines. The Negros wrinkled ground frog (P. negrosensis) is confined to a few localities on Panay and Negros in the west-central Philippines. All are threatened by loss of habitat. 

The small-headed frog (Occidozyga diminutiva) is confined to western Mindanao, Basilan, and the Sulu Archipelago in the southern Philippines. 

The Visayan wart frog (Limnonectes visayanus) is found patchily on Masbate, Cebu, Negros, Guimaras, Panay and Siquijor in the central Philippines. The small-disked wart frog (L. parvus) is confined to Mindanao and Basilan in the southern Philippines. 

The Abungabung caecilian (Ichthyophis glandulosus) is known only from western Mindanao and Basilan in the southern Philippines. 

The spotted Hampala barb (Hampala lopezi) is a littleknown species endemic to the Philippines. 

The Batanes Islands 

The Batanes Islands are located north of Luzon. They include Batan, Itbayat, Sabtang, and a number of uninhabited islets.

The Batanes pit viper (Trimeresurus mcgregori) is known only from Batan and Sabtang. 

Luzon 

Luzon is located in the northern Philippines, and is the largest and by far the most populous of the islands. Most of its original lowland rainforests were destroyed during the twentieth century, and what little remains in the higher elevations continues to be threatened by both legal and illegal logging. 

The southern Luzon cloud rat (Phloeomys cumingi) is found in southern Luzon and on the satellite islands of Catanduanes and Marinduque, where it is threatened mainly by hunting. 

The Luzon broad-toothed rat (Abditomys latidens) is confined to central and northern Luzon (Laguna and Mountain provinces). 

The Luzon short-nosed rat (Tryphomys adustus) is confined to a few localities in central and northern Luzon (Benguet, Laguna, and Tarlac provinces). 

The Luzon shrew-mouse (Crunomys fallax) is known only from a single specimen collected in the late nineteenth century from north-eastern Luzon. 

The brown-banded rail (Lewinia mirifica) is known only from Luzon, where it is subjected to heavy hunting. 

The green racquet-tail (Prioniturus luconensis) is a type of parrot that was historically widespread and common on Luzon and Marinduque. It has declined dramatically in recent decades due to habitat destruction and overcollection for the cage-bird trade, and is now largely confined to the Subic Bay Forest Reserve in western Luzon. 

The flame-breasted fruit dove (Ramphiculus marchei) is confined to Luzon, where it is threatened by loss of habitat and hunting. 

The Isabela oriole (Oriolus isabellae) was thought to be extinct until its rediscovery in 1993. Further populations have since been found in northern and eastern Luzon, but the species remains highly threatened by loss of habitat. 

The rufous-breasted blue flycatcher (Cyornis camarinensis) is confined to southern Luzon and Catanduanes Island, where it is threatened by habitat destruction. 

The Luzon black-bibbed cicadabird (Edolisoma mindanense lecroyae) is confined to Luzon, where it is very rare. 

The Luzon Whitehead’s swiftlet (Aerodramus whiteheadi whiteheadi) is confined to the mountains of Luzon. 

The white-browed jungle flycatcher (Vauriella insignis) is confined to the mountains of northern Luzon. 

Rabor’s ground warbler (Robsonius rabori) is known only from the mountains of north-western Luzon. 

Gray’s monitor (Varanus olivaceus) is confined to eastern Luzon and the satellite islands of Catanduanes and Polillo. It is threatened by habitat destruction, hunting, and overcollection for the international pet trade. 

Cuming’s fringed gecko (Luperosaurus cumingii) is confined to southern Luzon and the satellite island of Polillo. 

The San Roque skink (Parvoscincus laterimaculatus) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1961 from south-eastern Luzon (Sorsogon). Numerous surveys since have failed to detect the species, and it is most likely extinct. 

Knollman’s skink (Sphenomorphus knollmanae) is known from five scattered localities on Luzon and the island of Marinduque. 

The Manila wolf snake (Lycodon tessellatus) is known only from a single museum specimen collected in 1846 and labelled ‘Manila’. The Luzon wolf snake (L. solivagus) is known only from two localities in northern Luzon. 

The Manila blind snake (Malayotyphlops manilae) is known only from its original collection in the early twentieth century, most likely on Luzon. The light-collared blind snake (M. collaris) is known only from a single specimen collected in the early twentieth century from south-eastern Luzon. 

Moodie’s frog (Fejervarya moodiei) was a presumably aquatic species known only from a single specimen collected during the early twentieth century from what is now the city of Manila. It is most likely extinct. 

Taylor’s blood frog (Sanguirana igorota) is confined to the mountains of north-western Luzon, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and pollution. 

The montane wrinkled ground frog (Platymantis montanus) is confined to a few localities in south-central Luzon. The Cagayan wrinkled ground frog (P. cagayanensis) is confined to the northern coast of Luzon and the adjacent islet of Palaui. The Isarog wrinkled ground frog (P. isarog) is confined to Mount Isarog and Mount Malinao in south-eastern Luzon. The horned wrinkled ground frog (P. cornutus) is found patchily in northern Luzon. Taylor’s wrinked ground frog (P. taylori) is confined to north-eastern Luzon. All are threatened by loss of habitat. 

Walter’s narrow-mouthed frog (Kaloula walteri) is known from a few localities in south-eastern Luzon and the satellite island of Polillo, where it is threatened by loss of habitat. 

The dwarf freshwater goby (Gobiopterus stellatus) is a little-known species confined to Luzon. 

The Cordillera Central 

The Cordillera Central is a large mountain range located in north-central Luzon. 

The Luzon giant bushy-tailed cloud rat (Crateromys schadenbergi) is known only from the southern and central Cordillera Central.

The short-footed Luzon tree rat (Carpomys melanurus) was long known only from a single specimen collected from Mount Data in the late nineteenth century. A possible second specimen was collected in 2008. 

The large-toothed hairy-tailed rat (Batomys dentatus) is known only from a single specimen collected in the early twentieth century from the Cordillera Central. 

The Luzon buttonquail (Turnix worcesteri) is known only from a few localities. 

Lawton’s skink (Sphenomorphus lawtoni) is known only from two specimens collected in the 1920s from the mountains of north-western Luzon. 

Wright’s burrowing skink (Brachymeles wright) is known only from two specimens collected in the 1920s. 

Barbour’s keelback (Rhabdophis barbouri) is a type of water snake known only from two specimens collected in 1917. 

Myer’s snake (Myersophis alpestris) is known only from two specimens collected in the 1960s from the mountains of north-central Luzon. 

The Luzon blind snake (Acutotyphlops banaorum) is known only from a single locality in north-western Luzon. 

The Cordillera Central wrinked ground frog (Platymantis subterrestris) is confined to the Cordillera Central, where it is threatened by loss of habitat. 

The Sierra Madre Mountains 

The Sierra Madre Mountains are located in north-eastern Luzon (Cagayan and Quezon provinces). Running in a north–south direction, they form the eastern backbone of the island. 

The Lataan fringed gecko (Luperosaurus kubli) is known only from Mount Lataan in the Sierra Madre Mountains. 

The Sierra Madre blood frog (Sanguirana tipanan) is confined to a few localities within the Sierra Madre Mountains. 

The Sierra Madre wrinkled ground frog (Platymantis sierramadrensis) is known for certain only from the Sierra Madre Mountains, but may range more widely. 

The Zambales Mountains 

The Zambales Mountains are located in north-western Luzon (Zambales province). They include Mount Pinatubo, Mount Negron, Mount Cuadrado, and Mount Tapulao. 

The Tapulao shrew-rat (Rhynchomys tapulao) is known only from Mount Tapulao. 

Mount Banahao 

Mount Banahao is a potentially active, three-peaked stratovolcano located in southern Luzon (Laguna and Quezon provinces). 

Naomi’s wrinkled ground frog (Platymantis naomii), the indiscoverable wrinkled ground frog (P. indeprensus), the false-backed wrinkled ground frog (P. pseudodorsalis), and the Banahao wrinkled ground frog (P. banahao) are endemic to Mount Banahao. 

Mount Isarog 

Mount Isarog is a potentially active stratovolcano located in south-eastern Luzon (Camerines Sur province). It is nominally protected within Mount Isarog National Park. 

The Isarog shrew-rat (Rhynchomys isarogensis) is known only from Mount Isarog. 

The Isarog shrew-mouse (Archboldomys luzonensis) is known only from Mount Isarog. 

Malinao Volcano 

Malinao Volcano is a potentially active stratovolcano located in southern Luzon (Albay and Camarines Sur provinces). 

The Malinao wrinkled ground frog (Platymantis diesmosi) is confined to Malinao Volcano. 

Lake Taal 

Lake Taal (Lawa ng Taal in Tagalog, formerly known as Bombón Lake) is located in southern coastal Luzon (Batangas province). Originally an inlet of nearby Balayan Bay, a series of major eruptions during the eighteenth century combined with centuries of rain have converted it into a freshwater crater lake. Further eruptions have occurred since then, most recently in 2020. 

Semper’s sea snake (Hydrophis semperi), one of only two freshwater sea snakes in the world, is entirely confined to Lake Taal. 

The Taal herring (Sardinella tawilis) is a type of sardine that has evolved to live in freshwater, and is entirely confined to Lake Taal. It is threatened by overfishing, pollution, and competition from introduced fish species. 

Lake Bato 

Lake Bato is located in south-eastern Luzon (Camerines Sur province). 

The Bato pipefish (Microphis pleurostictus) is confined to Lake Bato as well as Yassot Creek and possibly other tributaries. 

Lake Buhi 

Lake Buhi is located in south-eastern Luzon (Camerines Sur province). 

The Buhi dog-faced water snake (Cerberus microlepis) is known only from Lake Buhi, where it was last recorded in the early 1990s. 

The Babuyan Islands 

The Babuyan Islands are a group of five main islands (Babuyan, Calayan, Dalupiri, Fuga, and Camiguin) along with their smaller satellites located north of Luzon. 

McGregor’s fringed gecko (Luperosaurus macgregori) is known only from the islands of Calayan, Barit, and Babuyan Claro. 

Ross’ wolf snake (Lycodon chrysoprateros) is only definitely known from three specimens collected in 1990. It may also be found on Calayan and Camiguin Norte Islands, but this has yet to be confirmed.

Calayan is the largest of the Babuyan Islands. 

The Calayan rail (Gallirallus calayanensis) is confined to Calayan Island.

The Romblon Islands 

The Romblon Islands are located south of Luzon in the central Philippines. 

The Romblon hawk-owl (Ninox spilonotus) is known with certainty only from the islands of Sibuyan and Tablas, although there are unconfirmed reports from Romblon Island itself. 

The Romblon streak-breasted bulbul (Hypsipetes siquijorensis cinereiceps) is confined to Tablas and Rombon. 

The Romblon wrinkled ground frog (Platymantis levigatus) is confined to Romblon, Tablas, and Sibuyan. 

Tablas 

Tablas is the largest of the Romblon Islands. 

The Tablas drongo (Dicrurus menagei) is a type of bird confined to Tablas, where it was thought to have gone extinct by the end of the twentieth century. However, observations since that time have confirmed that it still survives, although in very small numbers. 

The Tablas fantail (Rhipidura sauli) is a type of passerine bird confined to mature forests on Tablas. 

Sibuyan 

Sibuyan is the second largest of the Romblon Islands. Owing to its geological formation it has never been connected with the rest of the Philippines, and while most of its lowland forests have been destroyed much remains in the higher elevations. 

The Sibuyan striped shrew-rat (Chrotomys sibuyanensis) is known only from a single specimen collected from Sibuyan in 1992. 

Mindoro 

Mindoro is located in the west-central Philippines off the south-western coast of Luzon. Once covered with lush rainforests, most has already been destroyed by mining, agriculture and logging, with the remainder expected to disappear by 2030. The Siburan Forest/Sablayan Penal Colony holds the largest remaining area, and as such will be critically important for the survival of the island’s impressive number of endemic species. 

The tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) is a dwarf species of wild buffalo long found only on Mindoro, although it appears to have been historically present on Luzon as well and perhaps other islands. First recorded by Western science in 1888, the island’s problems with a particularly virulent strain of malaria deterred human settlers, allowing the species to roam at will. However, as the human population increased the tamaraw’s range shrank to just three known areas of dense montane forest with open glades for grazing, and the animals were forced to adapt nocturnal habits to avoid relentless hunting pressure (17 were killed in a single hunt by helicopter in 1968). By 1970 only around 100 remained, with perhaps a few other groups surviving in isolated areas. Since then the species and its main refuges have been given some protection, although enforcement is difficult. In 2016 the total population was estimated at 430. 

The Mindoro brown deer (Rusa marianna barandana) is confined to Mindoro, where it is seriously threatened by loss of habitat and hunting. 

The Mindoro warty pig (Sus oliveri) is nowadays confined to the mountains of central and north-western Mindoro, where it is heavily hunted and extremely rare. 

The Mindoro climbing rat (Anonymomys mindorensis) is known only from Ilong Peak in the Halcon Range of north-central Mindoro, although it may be more widely distributed.

The Mindoro shrew (Crocidura mindorus) is thought to be confined to the higher elevations of Mount Halcon in north-central Mindoro. 

The Ilin bush-tailed cloud rat (Crateromys paulus) is known only from a single specimen said to have been collected on Ilin, a small island located just south of Mindoro, in 1953. The island’s forests have since been entirely destroyed. However, it seems possible that the species may still survive in southern Mindoro. 

The Mindoro stripe-faced fruit bat (Styloctenium mindorensis) is known only from a few localities in western Mindoro and from the islands of Ilin and Ambulong. 

The Mindoro wattle-winged fruit bat (Desmalopex microleucopterus) is known only from a few localities on Mindoro. 

The Mindoro hawk-owl (Ninox mindorensis) is confined to Mindoro, where it has been collected at all elevations. 

The Mindoro hornbill (Penelopides mindorensis) was historically widespread and abundant on Mindoro up until the 1970s, but has declined rapidly ever since due to habitat destruction and hunting. 

The Mindoro racquet-tail (Prioniturus mindorensis) is a type of parrot confined to Mindoro. 

The Mindoro imperial pigeon (Ducula mindorensis) is found patchily in the mountains of central and northwestern Mindoro. 

The Mindoro bleeding-heart (Gallicolumba platenae) is a type of ground dove confined to Mindoro, where it was reported to be widespread and common up to the midtwentieth century. Habitat destruction and hunting have seriously reduced its numbers in recent years. 

The black-hooded coucal (Centropus steerii) is a type of cuckoo that was historically widespread and common on Mindoro. Now confined to a few lowland forest patches, its total population is believed to be less than 400. 

The Mindoro black-bibbed cicadabird (Edolisoma mindanense elusum) is confined to Mindoro. 

The Mindoro golden-backed frog (Pulchrana mangyanum) is confined to Mindoro and Sibay. 

Schmacker’s shrub frog (Philautus schmackeri) is confined to high- and mid-elevation forests on Mindoro. 

The Mindoro barb (Barbodes hemictenus) is known only from the Sabaan, Mamboc, and Baco rivers and Lake Naujan. 

Samar 

Samar is a large island located in the central Philippines.

Ferron’s wolf snake (Lycodon ferroni) is known only from a single specimen collected on Samar. 

Marx’s blind snake (Ramphotyphlops marxi) is known only from north-western Samar. 

The Samar tree frog (Polypedates hecticus) is known only from a single locality on Samar. 

Leyte 

Leyte is located just south of Samar in the central Philippines. 

The Leyte goby (Sicyopus axilimentus) is confined to Lagu Lagu creek on Leyte. 

Panay 

Panay is a triangular, mountainous island located in the central Philippines. 

The Panay busy-tailed cloud rat (Crateromys heaneyi) is confined to western Panay, where it has been collected from both lowland and montane localities. 

The Panay golden-crowned fruit bat (Acerodon jubatus lucifer) was an endemic subspecies now considered to be extinct, most like due to hunting. 

The Panay monitor (Varanus mabitang) is confined to remnant forests in the north-western and western mountains of Panay, where it is very rare and threatened by habitat destruction. 

Ernst Keller’s gecko (Gekko ernstkelleri) is known only from the north-western coastal area of Panay. 

Cornfield’s fringed gecko (Luperosaurus corfieldi) is known only from three specimens collected from far northwestern Panay. 

Sison’s skink (Parvoscincus sisoni) is known only from a few specimens collected in the central mountains of Panay. 

The Panay reed snake (Pseudorabdion talonuran) is known only from the western foothills of Mount Madja-as, within the island’s western coastal mountain range. 

The Panay stripe-lipped snake (Hologerrhum dermali) is known only from a few specimens collected in western Panay. 

Faust’s wolf snake (Lycodon fausti) is known only from a few specimens collected on Panay. 

Paeng’s wrinkled ground frog (Platymantis paengi) and the Panay forest wrinkled ground frog (P. panayensis) are both confined to Panay. 

The Gigantes Islands 

The Gigantes Islands are located north-east of Panay. 

The Gigantes narrow-disked gecko (Gekko gigante) is confined to Gigante Norte, Gigante Sur and a few nearby islets. It is threatened by mining activities. 

The Gigante wrinkled ground frog (Platymantis insulatus) is confined to the Gigantes Islands. 

Palawan 

Palawan is a long, narrow island located in the south-western Philippines. Together with its numerous satellite islands it is notable for a flora and fauna that displays more affinities with certain islands in Indonesia, especially Borneo, than with the rest of the Philippines. Unfortunately, much has been lost or degraded. 

The Palawan bearded pig (Sus ahoenobarbus) occurs on Palawan and a number of satellite islands, where it appears to be fairly safe. 

The Philippine pangolin (Manis culionensis) is confined to Palawan, the Calamian Islands (Culion, Calauit, and a number of smaller islands) and possibly Balabac. It is seriously threatened by hunting both for its meat as well as use in ‘traditional medicine’. 

The Philippine porcupine (Hystrix pumila) is confined to Palawan and Busuanga. 

The Palawan montane squirrel (Sundasciurus rabori) is restricted to a few pockets of montane forest, where it is known from only a few specimens. 

The Palawan pencil-tailed tree mouse (Chiropodomys calamianensis) is confined to lowland forests on Palawan, the Calamian Islands, and Balabac. 

The Palawan fruit bat (Acerodon leucotis) is confined to Palawan, the Calamian Islands (Busuanga), and Balabac. 

The Palawan hornbill (Anthracoceros marchei) is confined to Palawan and satellite islands. 

The blue-headed racquet-tail (Prioniturus platenae) is a type of parrot confined to Palawan and satellite islands. 

The Palawan peacock-pheasant (Polyplectron napoleonis) is confined to Palawan. 

The Palawan flycatcher (Ficedula platenae) is confined to Palawan and satellite islands. 

The falcated wren-babbler (Ptilocichla falcata) is confined to lowland forest fragments on Palawan. 

The Palawan forest turtle (Siebenrockiella leytensis) was long known only from three specimens collected in 1921 and a fourth in 1988. Viable populations have since been discovered, but the species is seriously threatened by collection for food and the international pet trade. 

The Palawan fringed gecko (Luperosaurus palawanensis) is known only from a single specimen. 

Wright’s skink (Sphenomorphus wrighti) is known only from three specimens collected in the 1920s and 1940s from two localities in central Palawan. 

The Mount Victoria skink (Parvoscincus palawanensis) is known with certainty only from the original collection of three specimens in 1959 from Mount Victoria in central Palawan. 

The Palawan reed snake (Calamaria palavanensis) has not been reported since its initial collection in the 1960s. 

The white-striped flathead toad (Pelophryne albotaeniata) is known only from a few localities. 

The Palawan horned frog (Megophrys ligayae) is confined to Palawan and Balabac. 

The Philippine flat-headed toad (Barbourula busuangensis) is confined to Palawan, the Calamian Islands (Busuanga and Culion), and Balabac. 

The Palawan eastern frog (Alcalus mariae) is known only from Mount Balabag in southern Palawan. 

The Malatgan River caecilian (Ichthyophis weberi) is known only from a few localities in central Palawan. 

Lake Manguao 

Lake Manguao is located in the hills of northern Palawan. 

The Manguao barb (Barbodes manguaoensis) is confined to Lake Manguao. 

The Manguao sleeper goby (Bostrychus expatria) is confined to Lake Manguao. 

The Calamian Islands 

The Calamian Islands are located north of Palawan. They include four larger and numerous smaller islands and islets. 

The Calamian hog deer (Axis calamianensis) is today confined to three of the four larger islands in the Calamians (Busuanga, Calauit, and Culion), but is absent from Coron. It is reported to have occurred on at least nine other, smaller islands, but is now thought to survive only on Marily and Dimaquiat. 

Balabac 

Balabac lies to the south of Palawan, about 50 km from the northern tip of Borneo. 

The Balabac chevrotain (Tragulus nigricans) is a type of ‘mouse-deer’ originally found only on the islands of Balabac, Bugsuk, and Ramos, but has also been introduced to Apulit and Calauit. While the population appears stable, the species is everywhere subject to poaching for food. 

Negros 

Negros is a relatively large, mountainous island located in the central Philippines. It too has been mostly deforested, particularly in the lowlands. 

The Negros shrew (Crocidura negrina) is known only from six specimens collected in southern Negros. 

The Negros fruit dove (Ptilinopus arcanus) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1953 on Mount Canlaon in north-central Negros. 

The Negros striped babbler (Zosterornis nigrorum) is confined to montane forest on Negros. 

The black slender skink (Lipinia rabori) is confined to southern Negros. 

The mountain burrowing snake (Pseudorabdion montanum) is known only from a few specimens. 

Taylor’s worm snake (Malayotyphlops canlaonensis) is known only from a single specimen collected on Mount Canlaon in 1917. All habitat at the type locality has since been completely deforested and the species is most likely extinct. 

The cave wrinked ground frog (Platymantis spelaeus) is confined to limestone karst areas and caves in southern Negros. Hazel’s wrinkled ground frog (P. hazelae) is confined to the mountains of Negros and possibly Masbate (although the latter population may represent a distinct form). 

Ticao 

Ticao is a small island located in the central Philippines. 

The Ticao hornbill (Penelopides panini ticaensis) was historically endemic to Ticao, where it was abundant in the early twentieth century. There is little remaining habitat on the island, however, and the subspecies is almost certainly extinct. 

Cebu 

Cebu is a long, narrow and mountainous island. Heavily populated, it has lost most of its original forests. 

The Cebu warty pig (Sus cebifrons cebifrons) was endemic to the island, where it is now believed to be extinct.

The Cebu hawk-owl (Ninox rumseyi) was long known only from a single specimen collected in 1888, and not recorded again until 1998. Today, fewer than 200 pairs remain within a handful of forest fragments. 

The Cebu hanging parakeet (Loriculus philippensis chrysonotus) was long thought to be extinct and may indeed be so, although a report of the possible capture of a single specimen provides hope that it may still survive in a remote area of central Cebu. 

The Cebu brown dove (Phapitreron frontalis) was long thought extinct, but there have been a few reports of its continued survival in recent years. 

The Cebu amethyst-brown fruit dove (Phapitreron amethystinus frontalis) was most likely extinct by 1892. 

The Cebu four-coloured flowerpecker (Dicaeum quadricolor) is a type of passerine bird that was feared extinct in the early twentieth century, but rediscovered in very low numbers in 1992. 

The Cebu black shama (Kittacincla cebuensis) is a type of passerine bird that was long feared extinct. In recent years it has been found in a considerable number of localities, but remains highly threatened. 

The Cebu streak-breasted bulbul (Hypsipetes siquijorensis monticola) was long thought to be extinct but was rediscovered, in small numbers, in the late twentieth century. 

The Cebu bar-bellied cuckoo-shrike (Coracina striata cebuensis) was last seen in 1906, and was likely extinct by 1947. 

The Cebu blackish cicadabird (Coracina coerulescens altera) was last seen in 1906, and was likely extinct by 1947. 

The Cebu orange-bellied flowerpecker (Dicaeum trigonostigma pallidius) was last seen in 1906, and was likely extinct by 1947. 

The Cebu Everett’s white-eye (Zosterops everetti everetti) was last seen in 1906, and was likely extinct by 1947. 

The Cebu dark-throated oriole (Oriolus xanthonotus assimilis) was last seen in 1906, and was likely extinct by 1947. 

The Cebu white-bellied woodpecker (Dryocopus javensis cebuensis) has not been seen in many years, and is now considered to be extinct. 

The Cebu burrowing skink (Brachymeles cebuensis) has only rarely been reported since its discovery in 1967. 

The Cebu blind snake (Malayotyphlops hypogius) is known only from a single specimen collected in the mid-twentieth century. 

Bohol 

Bohol is located in the south-central Philippines. 

The Bohol tarsier (Carlito syrichta fraterculus) is a type of nocturnal primate confined to Bohol, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and collection for use as pets. 

Siquijor 

Siquijor is a hilly island located about 45 km north of Mindanao in the southern Philippines. 

The Siquijor hanging parakeet (Loriculus philippensis siquijorensis) is most likely extinct. 

The Siquijor streak-breasted bulbul (Hypsipetes siquijorensis siquijorensis) is confined to the island, where it is highly threatened. 

Mindanao 

Located in the south-eastern Philippines, Mindanao is the second largest island in the archipelago. Most of the original lowland forest areas have long been cleared and only vestiges remain within the mountains. 

Two subspecies of Philippine brown deer (Rusa marianna), previously discussed, are endemic to Mindanao. The Mindanao uplands brown deer (R. m. nigella) is confined to a few isolated upland areas, while the Mindanao lowlands brown deer (R. m. nigricans) is found patchily at lower elevations. Both are threatened by habitat destruction and hunting. 

The Davao squirrel (Sundasciurus davensis) is known only from a single locality in eastern Mindanao. 

The Dinagat moonrat (Podogymnura aureospinula) is known from Dinagat and the nearby islands of Bucas Grande and Siargao, where it appears to be fairly common. 

The spiny long-footed rat (Tarsomys echinatus) is known only from the region of Mount Kitanglad and Mount Matutum. 

The greater lowland forest mouse (Apomys littoralis) is known only from the coastal plain of central Mindanao. 

The Mindanao golden-crowned fruit bat (Acerodon jubatus mindanensis) is found patchily on Mindanao, where it is threatened by bushmeat hunting. 

The Mindanao spotted imperial pigeon (Ducula carola mindanensis) is confined to Mindanao, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and hunting. 

The blue-capped kingfisher (Actenoides hombroni) was historically widespread on Mindanao but is now confined to a few scattered localities.

The Mindanao jungle flycatcher (Rhinomyias goodfellowi) is known only from a few montane localities in central and southern Mindanao. 

The Mindanao miniature babbler (Micromacronus sordidus) is confined to a few montane localities. 

The Mindanao pygmy babbler (Dasycrotapha plateni) is a rare species found patchily throughout Mindanao. 

The Diwata skink (Sphenomorphus diwata) is known only from a few montane localities. 

The six-striped supple skink (Eutropis englei) is known only from south-central Mindanao. 

The Cotabato worm skink (Brachymeles pathfinderi) is known only from south-central Mindanao. 

The red-tailed emo skink (Emoia ruficauda) is known only from a few specimens collected on Mindanao. 

Taylor’s burrowing snake (Pseudorabdion taylori) is known only from a single specimen collected during the nineteenth century from an imprecise locality on Mindanao. 

The Tagibo wart frog (Limnonectes diuatus) is a semiaquatic species confined to northern Mindanao and Dinagat. 

The Zamboanga blood frog (Sanguirana everetti) is known from a few localities in western and southern Mindanao. 

The molted shrub frog (Philautus surrufus) is confined to a few scattered mountainous areas on Mindanao. 

The Cascade barb (Barbodes cataractae) is known only from the Cascade River and the brackish waters of Murcielagos Bay, where it is commercially important. The Tumba barb (B. tumba) is confined to a few small lakes and rivers. 

The Kitanglad Mountains 

The Kitanglad Mountains are located in north-central Mindanao (Bukidnon province). They include Mount Apo National Park, most of which has been deforested. 

The Kitanglad shrew mouse (Crunomys suncoides) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1993 from Mount Kitanglad. 

Mount Malindang 

Mount Malindang is an inactive volcano located on the Zamboanga Peninsula of western Mindanao (Misamis Occidental province). 

The greater Mindanao shrew (Crocidura grandis) was long known only from two specimens recorded from Mount Malindang in 1906. In recent years other specimens from the same locality, and which likely represent the species, have also been collected. 

Gary’s mountain stream snake (Opisthotropis alcalai) is known only from Mount Malindang. 

Dapitan Peak 

Dapitan Peak is located on the Zamboanga Peninsula of western Mindanao (Misamis Occidental province). 

The rusty skink (Lipinia zamboangensis) is known only from Dapitan Peak. 

Lake Lanao 

Lake Lanao is a large and ancient lake located in the mountains of central Mindanao (Lanao del Sur province). 

Overfishing and the introduction of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and tank goby (Glossogobius giuris) have driven an endemic fish ‘species flock’ of the genus Barbodes within Lake Lanao and its associated waters to the point of extinction. Among those already believed to be lost are the Baoulan barb (B. baoulan), Clemens’ barb (B. clemensi), the katapa-tapa barb (B. flavifuscus), the Katolo barb (B. katolo), the kandar barb (B. lanaoensis), the manalak barb (B. manalak), the Agus Rapids barb (B. resimus), the bitungu barb (B. truncatulus), the pait barb (B. amarus), Herre’s barb (B. herrei), the disa barb (B. disa), the tras barb (B. tras), the rubberlip barb (B. pachycheilus), the prawn-eating barb (B. palaemophagus), and the palata barb (B. palata). The lindog barb (B. lindog) and the sirang barb (B. sirang) have not been recorded in many years and are possibly extinct. 

Lake Mainit 

Lake Mainit is located in north-eastern Mindanao (Surigao del Norte and Agusan del Norte provinces). At 223 m it is the deepest in the Philippines, and is also one of the largest. 

The Mainit priapum fish (Neostethus thessa) is confined to Lake Mainit, where it is threatened by pollution. 

The Dinagat Islands 

The Dinagat Islands are located off the northern tip of Mindanao. 

The Dinagat bushy-tailed cloud rat (Crateromys australis) is known only from a single specimen collected on Dinagat in the mid-1970s. Surveys since then have repeatedly failed to find others, and the species may be extinct. 

The Dinagat hair-tailed rat (Batomys russatus) is similarly known only from two individuals collected in 1975. 

Camiguin 

Camiguin is located off the northern coast of Mindanao in the Bohol Sea. It remains fairly well-forested, with an active stratovolcano on its south-western tip. 

The Camiguin forest rat (Bullimus gamay) is confined to Camiguin. 

The Camiguin forest mouse (Apomys camiguinensis) is known only from the central highlands of Camiguin. 

The Camiguin hawk-owl (Ninox leventisi) is confined to the island, where the remaining small population is threatened by habitat destruction. 

The Camiguin cross frog (Aphantophryne nana) is confined to Camiguin. 

The Sulu Archipelago 

The Sulu Archipelago (Kapuluan ng Sulu in Filipino) is a chain of island groups located south-west of the main Philippine islands. Densely populated, most of the original forest has been cleared by logging.

The Sulu hornbill (Anthracoceros montani) was historically found on three islands in the Sulu Archipelago (Tawi-Tawi, Jolo and Sanga-Sanga), where it was described as common to abundant in the late nineteenth century. It has since disappeared from Jolo and Sanga-Sanga, and today survives only in mountain forest on Tawi-Tawi where it is threatened by loss of habitat. The total population is believed to be less than 50. 

The Sulu pygmy woodpecker (Picoides ramsayi) was historically widespread and abundant in the Sulu Archipelago. Already rare by the early 1970s, it is now confined to Tawi- Tawi and fringing coralline islands. 

The limbless burrowing skink (Brachymeles vermis) is confined to Jolo, Tawi-Tawi and satellite islands. 

The Sulu leaf-litter skink (Tytthoscincus biparietalis) is confined to Basilan, Jolo, Tawi-Tawi and a few small satellite islands. 

The Sulu kukri snake (Oligodon meyerinkii) was historically found on Jolo, Tawi-Tawi and satellite islands. It was last recorded on Tawi-Tawi in the 1990s. 

The Sulu reed snake (Calamaria joloensis) is known only from a single specimen collected from an indistinct locality within the Sulu Archipelago (possibly Jolo). 

The Sulu blind snake (Ramphotyphlops suluensis) is known from Sibutu and Bubuan. 

The Papahag golden-backed frog (Hylarana melanomenta) is confined to Tawi-Tawi, Sibutu and a few satellite islands. 

Basilan 

Basilan is the largest and northernmost of the Sulu Islands. It comprises an extinct volcanic cone rising from a submarine ridge, surrounded by numerous satellite islands. 

Bartlett’s bleeding-heart (Gallicolumba crinigera bartletti) is a type of ground dove that became extinct in the wild during the mid-1990s, although a captive population exists in American zoos. 

The Basilan wart frog (Limnonectes micrixalus) is now confined to Basilan, although it may have formerly occurred on Mindanao as well. 

Jolo 

Jolo is an extinct volcanic cone rising from a submarine ridge, surrounded by numerous satellite islands. 

The Jolo fringed gecko (Luperosaurus joloensis) is known only from a small number of specimens collected on Jolo. A record from Mindanao appears to be erroneous. 

Tawi-Tawi 

The southernmost island in the Sulu Archipelago, Tawi-Tawi is covered by limestone and surrounded by numerous satellite islands. Virtually all of its original forests were destroyed by the end of the twentieth century. 

The Tawi-Tawi forest rat (Rattus tawitawiensis) is known only from three specimens collected on Tawi-Tawi in 1971. 

The Tawi-Tawi hawk-owl (Ninox reyi) is confined to Tawi-Tawi and satellite islands. 

The blue-winged racquet-tail (Prioniturus verticalis) is a type of parrot confined to Tawi-Tawi and satellite islands. 

The Tawi-Tawi brown dove (Phapitreron cinereiceps) is confined to Tawi-Tawi and adjacent Sanga-Sanga. 

The Tawi-Tawi bleeding-heart (Gallicolumba menagei) is a type of ground dove long known only from two specimens collected on Tawi-Tawi in 1891. Reported to be abundant prior to the 1970s, it declined dramatically thereafter and was last reported in 1995. 

The Sangir Islands 

The Sangir Islands or Sangihe Islands (Kepulauan Sangir in Indonesian) are located north-east of Sulawesi. 

The elegant sunbird (Aethopyga duyvenbodei) is now confined to Great Sangir, although it is known to have formerly occurred on Siau as well. 

Great Sangir Island 

The largest and northernmost island, Great Sangir (Sangir Besar in Indonesian, and sometimes called Sangihe or Sangir) is dominated by Mount Awu, an active volcano. Most of its original forest cover has been converted to agriculture. 

The Sangir tarsier (Tarsius sangirensis) is a type of nocturnal primate confined to Great Sangir. 

The red and blue lory (Eos histrio) was historically found in the Talaud and Sangir islands. The Sangir red and blue lory (E. h. histrio) was driven into extinction prior to the 1990s by hybridization with escaped trade individuals of the Talaud red and blue lory (E. h. talautensis). 

The Sangir shrike-thrush (Coracornis sanghirensis) was long known only from a single specimen collected in the late nineteenth century. It was rediscovered in the mountains of Great Sangir in 1995, where the total population is estimated at less than 100. 

The Sangir dwarf kingfisher (Ceyx sangirensis) is confined to Great Sangir, where it has not been recorded since 1997 and may indeed be extinct. 

The Sangir white-eye (Zosterops nehrkorni) is an extremely rare species long known only from a single specimen collected in the late nineteenth century. Rediscovered in 1996 and recorded again in 1999, after which it was not seen again until 2009. The total population is believed to number fewer than 50. 

The Cerulean paradise-flycatcher (Eutrichomyias rowleyi) is known only from a single specimen collected during the nineteenth century, and long presumed extinct. It was rediscovered in very small numbers in 1998. 

The Sangir pitta (Erythropitta caeruleitorques) is a type of passerine bird confined to Great Sangir. 

The Sangir golden bulbul (Thapsinillas platenae) is known only from a single locality on Great Sangir, where the total population is between 50 and 230.

The Sangir gliding tree frog (Rhacophorus rhyssocephalus) is confined to Great Sangir. 

Siau 

Siau (Pulau Siau in Indonesian) is a tiny island with an active volcano on one end and a large human population on the other. Virtually all of its original forest has been destroyed and the remaining wildlife is heavily hunted. 

The Siau tarsier (Tarsius tumpara) is one of the world’s most endangered primates. It is confined to the few remaining forest fragments on Siau and, conceivably, on a few very small satellite islands. 

The Siau scops owl (Otus siaoensis) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1866. 

The Siau pitta (Erythropitta palliceps) is a type of passerine bird confined to Siau and the satellite islands of Tagulandang and Ruang. 

The Talaud Islands 

The Talaud Islands (Kepulauan Talaud in Indonesian) are a small group located north-east of the Sangir Islands. They are frequently beset by earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. 

Two small species of rodent of the genus Melomys, perhaps sharing a common ancestor, are endemic to Karakelang and Salibabu. The terrestrial Talaud mosaic-tailed rat (M. caurinus) is known only from four specimens, while the arboreal Talaud mosaic-tailed rat (M. talaudium) is similarly little-known. 

The Talaud fruit bat (Acerodon humilis) is confined to Karakelang and Salibabu, where it was long known only from three specimens collected in 1909. It was rediscovered in 2002. 

The Talaud bush-hen (Amaurornis magnirostris) is known for certain only from Karakelang, although a small number may also survive on Salibabu. 

The Talaud red and blue lory (Eos histrio talautensis) was formerly widespread in the Talaud Islands, but is now largely confined to Karakelang. It is seriously threatened by illegal collection for the pet trade. 

Karakelang 

Karakelang is the largest of the Talaud Islands. It has a notably steep coast except for the southern shore, which is fringed by a wide coral reef. Remaining forests are somewhat protected. 

The Karakelang rail (Gymnocrex talaudensis) is confined to Karakelang, where it has only been observed once since its discovery in the 1990s. 

The Karakelang pitta (Erythropitta inspeculata) is a type of passerine bird confined to Karakelang. 

Salibabu 

Salibabu has been largely converted for agricultural purposes, although some remnant forest remains in its lower hills. 

The Salibabu bear cuscus (Ailurops melanotis) is a rare species of arboreal marsupial likely endemic to the island. Reports of specimens from Great Sangir Island probably refer to an as-yet undescribed form. 

Miangas 

Miangas is a small, low-lying island covered in coconut palms. 

The Miangas red and blue lory (Eos histrio challengeri) is an extinct form likely (but not positively) known from the island. 

Sulawesi 

Sulawesi is a large island located between Borneo and the Moluccas and north of Java. It consists of four long peninsulas joined to a mountainous central core. The volcanic and tectonic activities that created the island left in its wake a network of streams and ravines, along with the massive rifts and craters that later became rivers, lakes, and upland plains. Many species on Sulawesi can trace their origins to the continents of Asia and Australia, although the island’s geographic history and relative isolation have given it its own distinctive fauna. While most of Indonesia’s larger islands suffer from extreme deforestation, Sulawesi still supports relatively extensive tracts of both montane and lowland moist forests. 

Sulawesi’s most famous mammals are two species of anoa (Bubalus), dwarf buffalo that in the past were collectively distributed over the whole of the island. Quarles’ anoa (B. quarlesi) occurs patchily in both highland and lowland areas throughout Sulawesi as well as on the island of Buton, off the south-eastern coast. Uncontrolled hunting (mainly for food) and habitat destruction have reduced it to under 2500 individuals. Smith’s anoa (B. depressicornis) is also found throughout Sulawesi and the island of Buton, where it favours open, coastal areas. It too has been wantonly hunted, reportedly even by military units with machine guns. 

Several species of macaque (Macaca) are endemic to Sulawesi, where they are threatened by habitat destruction, hunting, trapping, poisoning, human persecution and capture for use as pets. The black crested macaque (M. nigra) is naturally confined to the Tangkoko Reserve at the tip of Sulawesi’s northern peninsula (Sulawesi Utara province), as well as to the small neighbouring islands of Manado Tua, Talise and (formerly) Lembeh. There is a fairly large introduced population on the island of Bacan in the Moloccas, where the species has become a crop pest. In Sulawesi itself the species is heavily hunted for its meat and has been extirpated from many areas. The Gorontalo macaque (M. nigrescens) is confined to the central section of Sulawesi’s northern peninsula (Gorontalo and Sulawesi Utara province), where it too is highly threatened by bushmeat hunting. It is protected within Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park. Heck’s macaque (M. hecki) is confined to the southern and western sections of the northern peninsula of Sulawesi (Gorontalo and Sulawesi Tengah provinces). The Tonkean macaque (M. tonkeana) is relatively widespread in central Sulawesi. A small population on Malenge in the Togean Islands is thought to have been introduced. The Moor macaque (M. maura) is largely confined to the highland and karst forests of the southwestern peninsula of Sulawesi (Sulawesi Selatan province), although a few populations remain in lowland areas as well. The booted macaque (M. ochreata) is divided into two subspecies. The Sulawesi booted macaque (M. o. ochreata) is found throughout the south-eastern peninsula of Sulawesi, extending to the north of the lakes region (Sulawesi Tengah, Sulawesi Selatan and Sulawesi Tenggara provinces). The Muna-Butung booted macaque (M. o. brunnescens) was historically found on Muna and Butung, although it may have been exterminated from the former as it is now almost completely deforested. It may also occur on the small island of Labuan Blanda off Sulawesi’s eastern coast. 

Several species of tarsier (Tarsius) are confined to small areas of Sulawesi and its satellite islands, where they are threatened by loss of habitat, agricultural pesticides, predation by domestic dogs and cats, hunting for use as food, and occasional collection for the pet trade. Dian’s tarsier (T. dentatus) occurs in the eastern portion of the central core of Sulawesi to the tip of the eastern peninsula (Sulawesi Tengah province). The Lariang tarsier (T. lariang) is confined to central-western Sulawesi (Sulawesi Barat province). The Makassar tarsier (T. fuscus) is found on the south-western peninsula of Sulawesi south of the Lake Tempe Depression (Sulawesi Selatan province). Wallace’s tarsier (T. wallacei) has a small, discontinuous range in north-western Sulawesi (Sulawesi Tengah province). The Manado tarsier (T. spectrumgurskyae) is found on the northern peninsula of Sulawesi from the Isthmus of Gorontalo to the tip (Sulawesi Utara province). The Bumbulan tarsier (T. supriatna) is found on the northern peninsula of Sulawesi from the Isthmus of Gorontalo westward at least as far as Sejoli and possibly Ogatemuku (Gorontalo province). 

The Sulawesi babirusa (Babyrousa celebensis) is a pig-like animal still found throughout Sulawesi as well as on the offshore islands of Muna, Buton and Lembeh. It is threatened by hunting and loss of its rainforest habitat. 

The Sulawesi palm civet (Macrogalidia musschenbroekii) is a rare species found patchily throughout Sulawesi and a few offshore islands, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and predator control efforts. 

The Sulawesi bear cuscus (Ailurops ursinus) is widespread in the forests of Sulawesi, Peleng in the Banggai Islands, the Togean Islands, Buton, and possibly Muna. It is everywhere threatened, however, by loss of habitat, hunting and collection for the pet trade. 

The Minahasa long-nosed squirrel (Hyosciurus ileile) is known only from a few localities within the northern peninsula of Sulawesi (Gorontalo and Sulawesi Tengah provinces). 

The Minahasa hill rat (Bunomys fratrorum) is confined to the north-eastern part of the northern peninsula of Sulawesi (Sulawesi Utara province). 

The south-eastern xanthurus rat (Rattus salocco) is known only from three specimens collected from the south-eastern peninsula of Sulawesi (Sulawesi Tenggara province), the last in 1932. The south-western xanthurus rat (R. bontanus) is known only from a few localities on the south-western peninsula of Sulawesi (Sulawesi Selatan province). 

The Minahasa taeromys rat (Taeromys taerae) is known only from a small area of the northern peninsula of Sulawesi (Sulawesi Utara and Gorontalo provinces), where it was last collected in 1932. The greater taeromys rat (T. callitrichus) is known only from a few localities in northern and west-central Sulawesi, where it is threatened by loss of habitat and hunting. 

The Sulawesi Utara spiny rat (Echiothrix leucura) is confined to the north-eastern tip of Sulawesi’s northern peninsula (Sulawesi Utara province). 

The Sulawesi harpy fruit bat (Harpyionycteris celebensis) is found throughout Sulawesi and on the island of Buton, but is everywhere rare due to overhunting for food. 

The small-toothed fruit bat (Neopteryx frosti) is known only from two disjunct localities in central and northern Sulawesi. It was last recorded in 1991. 

The Sulawesi rousette fruit bat (Boneia bidens) is widespread across Sulawesi except for the south-west, as well as the islands of Lembeh and Buton, but is everywhere threatened by hunting and habitat destruction. 

The crested leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros inexpectatus) is known only from three historical collections in central and northern Sulawesi, the first two in the 1870s and the third at some time prior to 1925. 

Sclegel’s masked owl (Tyto inexspectata) is a rare species known only from a handful of historical specimens and a few more recent sightings originating from northern and northcentral Sulawesi. 

The maleo (Macrocephalon maleo) is a large gallinaceous bird from the rainforests of Sulawesi and Buton, where it has been much reduced by habitat destruction, hunting, and the unsustainable harvesting of its eggs. 

The knobbed hornbill (Rhyticeros cassidix) is found throughout Sulawesi as well as on Lembeh, Muna, Buton and the Togean Islands. It has undergone significant declines due to hunting and loss of habitat. 

Temminck’s hornbill (Rhabdotorrhinus exarhatus) is divided into two subspecies. The northern Temminck’s hornbill (R. e. exarhatus) is confined to northern Sulawesi and the island of Lembeh. The southern Temminck’s hornbill (R. e. sanfordi) is found in central, eastern and southern Sulawesi and on the islands of Muna and Buton. Both are threatened by habitat destruction, hunting for food and collection for use as pets. 

The Sulawesi yellow-crested cockatoo (Cacatua sulphurea sulphurea) was historically found throughout Sulawesi and a few satellite islands, but has undergone a massive decline due to overcollection for the pet trade. 

The blue-faced rail (Gymnocrex rosenbergii) is known from a few localities on the northern peninsula of Sulawesi and the islands of Peleng and Buton. 

The snoring rail (Aramidopsis plateni) is a secretive species known only from a handful of records, very few of them recent, originating throughout Sulawesi and the island of Buton. It is thought to be genuinely rare and threatened by loss of habitat. 

Heinrich’s nightjar (Eurostopodus diabolicus) was long known only from a single specimen collected from Mount Klabat on the northern peninsula of Sulawesi. Apart from a few unconfirmed reports in the following decades it was officially discovered again until 1996, and since then it has been observed in a few localities in northern and westcentral Sulawesi. 

Forsten’s tortoise (Indotestudo forstenii) is endemic to northern Sulawesi, where it is threatened by overcollection for food and the international pet trade. 

Conrad’s worm snake (Ramphotyphlops conradi) is known only from a single specimen collected during the late nineteenth century from an undefined locality at the northern tip of Sulawesi’s northern peninsula (Sulawesi Utara province). Mountains 

The central part of Sulawesi is ruggedly mountainous, such that the island’s peninsulas have historically been remote from each other, with better connections by sea than by road. 

The Sulawesi mountain tarsier (Tarsius pumilus) is an enigmatic species of nocturnal primate from the mountains of central and southern Sulawesi. It was known only from three specimens until fairly recently. The first was collected in 1916 from Rano Rano, the second in 1930 from Mount Rantemario, and a third was found dead in a rat trap on Mount Rorekatimbu in 2000. It had never been seen alive by scientists until 2008, when a few individuals were captured in Lore Lindu National Park. 

The central mountains taeromys rat (Taeromys hamatus) is known only from Mount Lehio, Mount Kanino, and Mount Nokilalaki in west-central Sulawesi (Sulawesi Tengah province). The reddish-furred taeromys rat (T. punicans) is known only from its original collection in 1918 from west-central Sulawesi (Sulawesi Tengah province). 

Sommer’s Sulawesi rat (Sommeromys macrorhinos) is known only from a few localities in west-central Sulawesi (Sulawesi Barat and Sulawesi Selatan provinces). 

The Sulawesi soft-furred rat (Eropeplus canus) is known only from a few localities in west-central Sulawesi. 

Dollman’s spiny rat (Maxomys dollmani) is known only from two disjunct localities in west-central and south-eastern Sulawesi. 

The Sulawesi mountain shrew-rat (Melasmothrix naso) is so far known only from Mount Rano Rano, Mount Nokilalaki, and Mount Gandangdewata, but likely also occurs in other mountains in west-central Sulawesi. 

The worm-eating shrew-rat (Paucidentomys vermidax) is known only from two specimens collected from Mount Gandangdewata and Mount Latimojong in westcentral Sulawesi. 

The long-tailed Sulawesi shrew-rat (Tateomys macrocercus) and Tate’s Sulawesi shrew-rat (T. rhinogradoides) are each known only from a few disjunct localities in westcentral Sulawesi. 

The Sulawesi shrew-mouse (Crunomys celebensis) is known only from three localities in west-central Sulawesi. 

The Linduan rousette fruit bat (Rousettus linduensis) is known only from four specimens collected in Lore Lindu National Park, west-central Sulawesi (Sulawesi Tengah province). 

The Minahasa pipistrelle bat (Pipistrellus minahassae) is known with certainty only from a single specimen collected from the Minahassa Peninsula (Sulawesi Utara province). 

The Cinnabar hawk-owl (Ninox ios) is known only from four records originating within the highlands of northern and west-central Sulawesi. 

The Matinan flycatcher (Cyornis sanfordi) is known only from four localities within the mountains of the northern peninsula of Sulawesi (Sulawesi Utara, Gorontalo and Sulawesi Tengah provinces). 

The southern hylocitrea (Hylocitrea bonthaina) is a type of passerine bird known only from the mountains of the southwestern peninsula of Sulawesi (Sulawesi Selatan province), where it has rarely been recorded in recent decades. 

The Minahasa cross frog (Oreophryne celebensis) is confined to a small area of the northern peninsula of Sulawesi (Sulawesi Utara and Gorontalo provinces). The variable cross frog (O. variabilis) is known only from Mount Lompobatang and Mount Latimojong in south-western Sulawesi, and from Mount Karua in the central-west. Both species are threatened by loss of habitat. 

The Djikoro wart frog (Limnonectes arathooni) is a rare species known only from the montane forests of Mount Lompobatang and Mount Latimojong in south-western Sulawesi (Sulawesi Selatan province). The Lompobatang wart frog (L. microtympanum) is confined to Mount Lompobatang and Bantimurung National Park in south-western Sulawesi (Sulawesi Selatan province). 

Mount Nokilalaki 

Mount Nokilalaki (Gunung Nokilalaki in Indonesian) is located in west-central Sulawesi (Sulawesi Tengah province). 

The lesser Margareta rat (Margaretamys parvus) is confined to montane forest on Mount Nokilalaki. 

Mount Rorekatimbo 

Mount Rorekatimbo (Gunung Rorekatimbo in Indonesian) is located in west-central Sulawesi (Sulawesi Tengah province). 

The mossy forest shrew (Crocidura musseri) is known only from montane forest on Mount Rorekatimbo, but may occur more widely. 

Mount Tambusisi 

Mount Tambusisi (Gunung Tambusisi in Indonesian) is located in east-central Sulawesi (Sulawesi Tengah province). It lies within the Morowali Nature Reserve. 

Watts’ spiny rat (Maxomys wattsi) is known only from a group of specimens collected on the forested slopes of Mount Tambusisi in 1980. It may occur more widely.

The long-headed hill rat (Bunomys prolatus) is confined to Mount Tambusisi. 

The Mekongga Mountains 

The Mekongga Mountains (Pegunungan Mekongga in Indonesian) are located on the western side of the southeastern peninsula of Sulawesi (Sulawesi Tenggara province). 

The secretive dwarf squirrel (Prosciurillus abstrusus) is known only from a single collection in the 1950s from the Mekongga Mountains. 

The small-eared taeromys rat (Taeromys microbullatus) is known only from three specimens collected in 1932 from Mount Tanke Salokko. 

The plain-backed kingfisher (Actenoides regalis) is known only from two specimens collected from Mount Tanke Salokko. 

Zimmer’s cross frog (Oreophryne zimmeri) is known only from a single specimen collected in the 1930s from the Menkongga Mountains. 

Mount Moncong Lompobatang 

Mount Moncong Lompobatang (Gunung Moncong Lompobatang in Indonesian) is a prominent peak located on the tip of the south-western peninsula of Sulawesi (Sulawesi Selatan province). While protected within Gunung Lompobatang National Park, its forests are becoming highly fragmented due to selective logging and the creation of plantations. 

The Lompobatang soft-furred rat (Rattus mollicomulus) is confined to the upper slopes of Mount Moncong Lompobatang. 

The Lompobatang hill rat (Bunomys coelestis) is confined to Mount Moncong Lompobatang. 

The Lompobattang fruit dove (Ramphiculus meridionalis) is confined to Mount Moncong Lompobatang. 

The Lompobattang flycatcher (Ficedula bonthaina) is known only from two historical collections from Mount Moncong Lompobatang. Apparently common up until the 1930s, it has rarely been recorded since. 

Lowland Rainforests 

While still relatively extensive compared to those of other islands in the region, Sulawesi’s lowland rainforests have suffered significant deforestation in recent decades. 

Weber’s dwarf squirrel (Prosciurillus weberi) is known only from a few specimens collected from a small area of south-central Sulawesi (Sulawesi Selatan province). 

The central Sulawesi spiny rat (Echiothrix centrosa) is known from a few scattered localities in northern and northcentral Sulawesi. 

The spiny lowland Margareta rat (Margaretamys beccarii) is known only from specimens collected in 1880 and 1976 from central and northern Sulawesi. 

The Minahassa ranee mouse (Haeromys minahassae) is known only from three disjunct localities in northern and central Sulawesi. 

Gaskell’s false serotine bat (Hesperoptenus gaskelli) is known only from a single specimen collected in east-central coastal Sulawesi (Sulawesi Tengah province). 

Boeadi’s roundleaf bat (Hipposideros boeadii) is known only from a few specimens collected from Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park, on the south-eastern peninsula of Sulawesi (Sulawesi Tenggara province). 

The Sulawesi forest turtle (Leucocephalon yuwonoi) is a little-known and highly threatened species from northern Sulawesi. 

Pak Djoko’s fringed gecko (Luperosaurus iskandari) is known only from the base of Mount Tompotika, in eastern Sulawsi (Sulawesi Tengah province). 

Boeseman’s reed snake (Calamaria boesemani) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1919 from the eastern peninsula (Sulawesi Tengah province). 

Heinrich’s wart frog (Limnonectes heinrichi) is confined to a small area of north-eastern Sulawesi (Sulawesi Utara and Gorontalo provinces). 

Lakes, Rivers and Marshes 

The old, isolated lakes of central Sulawesi host a very distinctive and highly endemic fauna and flora, in particular a large array of fishes, along with many rare aquatic plants such as floating ferns. 

Two species of large, semi-aquatic lizard, Peters’ sailfin lizard (Hydrosaurus celebensis) and the Makassar sailfin lizard (H. microlophus), are confined to wetland areas of Sulawesi, where they are threatened by habitat destruction and overcollection for the international pet trade. 

Boulenger’s water snake (Enhydris matannensis) is known only from Lake Matano and Muna Island. 

Ladiges’ rainbowfish (Marosatherina ladigesi) is known only from a few rivers on the south-western peninsula of Sulawesi (Sulawesi Selatan province), where it is threatened by pollution and overcollection for the international aquarium trade. 

Ladiges’ halfbeak (Nomorhamphus towoetii) is confined to Lake Towuti and Lake Poso. 

Lake Tondano 

Lake Tondano (Danau Tondano in Indonesian) is located in far northern Sulawesi (Sulawesi Utara province). 

The Tondano halfbeak (Tondanichthys kottelati) is confined to Lake Tondano. 

Lake Lindu 

Lake Lindu (Danau Lindu in Indonesian) is located in central Sulawesi (Sulawesi Tengah province), within Lore Lindu National Park. 

Sarasins’ buntingi (Xenopoecilus sarasinorum) is confined to Lake Lindu. 

Lake Poso 

Lake Poso (Danau Poso in Indonesian) is located in eastcentral Sulawesi (Sulawesi Tengah province). The third deepest lake in Indonesia, it has evolved a unique array of endemic fishes that have unfortunately been decimated by the introduction of exotic species such as Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) and common carp (Cyprinus carpio), as well as by other factors. 

The duck-billed buntingi (Adrianichthys kruyti) is a type of ricefish that has not been recorded for many years, and is most likely extinct. 

Popta’s buntingi (Xenopoecilus poptae) and the egg-carrying buntingi (X. oophorus) are both confined to Lake Poso, where they are seriously threatened by overfishing and agrochemical pollution. 

The black ricefish (Oryzias nigrimas) and the sharp-jawed ricefish (O. orthognathus) are both confined to Lake Poso, where they are threatened by introduced species, pollution, and overfishing. 

The Poso halfbeak (Nomorhamphus celebensis) is confined to Lake Poso and tributary streams. 

The Poso mangrove goby (Mugilogobius amadi) was historically endemic to Lake Poso, where it was last recorded in 1978. It is almost certainly extinct, possibly due to volcanic and tectonic events that occurred in 1983 in addition to other factors. 

Sarasins’ goby (Tamanka sarasinorum) is confined to Lake Poso. 

The Malili Lakes System 

The Malili Lakes system is located in west-central Sulawesi (Sulawesi Selatan and Sulawesi Tenggara provinces). It consists of two large lakes (Matano and Towuti) and three smaller ones (Mahalona, Masapi, and Lontoa). 

Boulenger’s rainbowfish (Telmatherina celebensis) is known from Lake Towuti, the smaller lakes Mahalona and Lontoa, and the Tominanga River, where it is threatened by introduced predatory fish and pollution. Bont’s rainbowfish (T. bonti) is confined to the Malili Lakes system. 

Woltereck’s sailfin silverside (Paratherina wolterecki) is confined to Lake Towuti and the smaller Lake Mahalona. 

The marbled ricefish (Oryzias marmoratus) is confined to Lake Towuti and the smaller lakes Mahalona and Lontoa, as well as in a few tributary streams and creeks. 

Weber’s halfbeak (Nomorhamphus weberi) is known from Lake Matano and the smaller Lake Mahalona.

Aurich’s goby (Glossogobius intermedius) is confined to Lake Towuti and Lake Mahalona. Weber’s goby (G. matanensis) is known from Lake Matano, Lake Towuti and Lake Mahalona. Both are threatened by introduced predatory fish, pollution, and sedimentation. 

The Malili Lakes mangrove goby (Mugilogobius latifrons) is known from Lake Matano, Lake Towuti, Lake Mahalona, and their tributaries. It is threatened by introduced predatory fish and sedimentation. 

Lake Matano (Danau Matano in Indonesian) is located in Sulawesi Selatan province. It is the deepest lake in South East Asia and the eighth deepest in the world. 

The Mengonuwai rainbowfish (Telmatherina obscura), Antonia Kottelat’s rainbowfish (T. antoniae), the opudi rainbowfish (T. opudi), Wahju’s rainbowfish (T. wahjui), Sarasins’ rainbowfish (T. sarasinorum), the prognathous rainbowfish (T. prognatha), Abendanon’s rainbowfish (T. abendanoni), and the white-lipped rainbowfish (T. albolabiosus) are all confined to Lake Matano, where they are threatened by introduced predatory fish and sedimentation. 

The Matano ricefish (Oryzias matanensis) is confined to Lake Matano. 

The Matano mangrove goby (Mugilogobius adeia) is confined to Lake Matano. 

Lake Towuti (Danau Towuti in Indonesian) is located in Sulawesi Selatan province. It is the largest lake in Sulawesi. 

The Towuti rainbowfish (Tominanga sanguicauda) is confined to Lake Towuti and its tributaries. 

The yellow-finned ricefish (Oryzias profundicola) is confined to Lake Towuti. 

The Towuti yellowfin goby (Glossogobius flavipinnis) is confined to shallow nearshore areas of Lake Towuti. 

Lake Mahalona (Danau Mahalona in Indonesian) is a small lake located between Lake Towuti and Lake Matano in Sulawesi Selatan province. 

The Mahalona rainbowfish (Tominanga aurea) is confined to Lake Mahalona. 

Lake Lontoa (Danau Lontoa in Indonesian, and also known as Lake Wawantoa) is a relatively small lake located to the north-east of Lake Towuti in Sulawesi Selatan province. 

The Lontoa sailfin silverside (Paratherina labiosa) is confined to Lake Lontoa, where it is threatened by increasing sedimentation due to deforestation. 

The Togean Islands 

The Togean Islands (Kepulauan Togean in Indonesian) are an archipelago of 56 islands and islets located in the Gulf of Tomini, between the northern and eastern Sulawesi peninsulas. 

The Togean babirusa (Babyrousa togeanensis) is a type of wild swine confined to Batudaka, Togean, Talatakoh, and Malenge islands. However, the animals are excellent swimmers and are occasionally to be seen on offshore islets such as Pangempan. 

The Togean tarsier (Tarsius niemitzi) is a type of nocturnal primate confined to the Togean Islands. 

The Banggai Archipelago 

The Banggai Archipelago (Kepulauan Banggai in Indonesian) is located off the eastern end of the central peninsula of Sulawesi. 

The Banggai fruit dove (Ramphiculus subgularis) is endemic to the Banggai Archipelago, where it is fairly common. Peleng 

Peleng (Pulau Peleng in Indonesian) is one of the principal islands of the Banggai Archipelago.

The Peleng tarsier (Tarsius pelengensis) is currently known only from forest fragments on Peleng, but may be present on other islands in the Banggai Archipelago. 

Two species of rat (Rattus) are endemic to Peleng. Koopman’s rat (R. koopmani) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1938. The Peleng rat (R. pelurus) is known only from a few specimens collected in 1938. 

The Peleng scops owl (Otus mendeni) is confined to Peleng. 

The Banggai crow (Corvus unicolor) was long known only from two specimens collected from an unspecified island in the Banggai Archipelago. A sighting on the western slopes of Peleng in 1991 led to eventual surveys confirming that the species still survives there in small numbers. 

The Peleng jungle flycatcher (Cyornis pelingensis) is confined to Peleng. 

Buton 

Buton (Pulau Buton in Indonesian) is a large island located off the south-eastern peninsula of Sulawesi. 

The Tuwa gliding tree frog (Rhacophorus georgii) appears to be confined to lowland rainforest on Buton, where it is rare. 

The Tukangbesi Islands 

The Tukangbesi Islands are located immediately east of Buton in the Banda Sea. 

The Tukangbesi yellow-crested cockatoo (Cacatua sulphurea paulandrewi) is confined to the Tukangbesi Islands, where only a few individuals were reported to survive in 2009. 

The Selayar Islands 

The Selayar Islands (Kepulauan Selayar in Indonesian) are located just south of the south-western peninsula of Sulawesi. 

Selayar 

Selayar is the largest of the Selayar Islands. 

The Selayar tarsier (Tarsius tarsier) is a type of nocturnal primate that was long thought to be widespread throughout Sulawesi and its satellite islands, but owing to considerable taxonomic splitting in recent years it now appears to be wholly or entirely confined to Selayar Island. 

Tanah Jampea 

Tanah Jampea (Pulau Tanah Jampea in Indonesian) is the second largest of the Selayar Islands. It has been designated an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International. 

The Tanah Jampea yellow-crested cockatoo (Cacatua sulphurea djampeana) is confined to Tanah Jampea, where in 2016 the total population was thought to be less than 100. 

The Tanah Jampea sunset lorikeet (Trichoglossus forsteni djampeanus) is (or was) confined to the island, where it is now most likely extinct. 

The white-tipped monarch (Symposiachrus everetti) is a type of passerine bird confined to Tanah Jampea. 

Kalaotoa 

Kalaotoa (Pulau Kalaotoa in Indonesian) lies to the east of the Selayar Islands. 

The Kalaotoa sunset lorikeet (Trichoglossus forsteni stresemanni) is (or was) confined to the island, where it is now most likely extinct. 

The Moluccas Archipelago 

The Moluccas (also known as the Maluku Islands), which lie between Sulawesi and New Guinea, include over 1000 islands ranging in size from fairly large to small and uninhabited islets of only a few hectares. Most are mountainous, some with active volcanoes. The largest two islands, Halmahera and Seram, are sparsely populated, while the most developed, Ambon and Ternate, are small. Rainforest covers most of the northern and central Moluccas, which, on the smaller islands, have been largely replaced by spice plantations. 

Four species of flying fox (Pteropus) are endemic to the Moluccas, where they are threatened by habitat destruction and hunting. The Moluccan flying fox (P. chrysoproctus) is fairly widespread in the islands and probably still not uncommon. Nevertheless, it has rarely been collected and is believed to be declining. The black-bearded flying fox (P. melanopogon) is confined to Seram, Buru and adjacent smaller islands in the central Moluccas, as well as in the Tanimbar Islands. Temminck’s flying fox (P. temminckii) is confined to Buru, Seram and Ambon in the central Moluccas. The spectacled flying fox (P. ocularis) is confined to Buru, Seram and (at least historically) Ambon. 

The lesser tube-nosed fruit bat (Nyctimene minutus) is confined to Buru and Seram in the central Moluccas. 

Rozendaal’s blossom fruit bat (Syconycteris carolinae) is confined to Halmahera and Bacan in the northern Moluccas. 

Stalker’s mouse-eared bat (Myotis stalkeri) is known only from a few specimens collected disjunctly from Gebe and the Kai Islands in the Moluccas, and from Waigeo and Batanta in the Raja Ampat Islands off the western coast of New Guinea. It is likely threatened by disturbance of its roosting sites. 

The Moluccan scrubfowl (Eulipoa wallacei) is still fairly widespread in the Moluccas, but has declined dramatically everywhere owing to the overcollection of its eggs. 

The Moluccan woodcock (Scolopax rochussenii) was long known only from eight specimens collected on Obi and Bacan in the northern Moluccas, the most recent in 1980. In 2010 and again in 2012 it was recorded from a few localities on Obi. 

Two species of cockatoo (Cacatua) endemic to the Moluccas are threatened by overcollection for the cage-bird trade. The white cockatoo (C. alba) is found on the islands of Halmahera, Bacan, Ternate, Tidore, Kasiruta, and Mandioli in the northern Moluccas, with an additional, introduced population on Taiwan. The salmon-crested cockatoo (C. moluccensis) appears to be nowadays confined to Seram and perhaps a single locality on Ambon. It formerly occurred on the smaller islands of Saparua and Haruku as well, but has been extirpated from there.

The purple-naped lory (Lorius domicella) is confined to Seram, Ambon and perhaps Haruku and Saparua, where it is everywhere uncommon. The chattering lory (L. garrulus) is confined to Morotai, Rau, Halmahera, Widi, Ternate, Bacan, and Obi in the northern Moluccas. Both are threatened by overcollection for the cage-bird trade and by loss of habitat. 

Kuehn’s yellow white-eye (Zosterops kuehni) is confined to Ambon and Seram in the central Moluccas. 

Oort’s scaly toed gecko (Lepidodactylus oortii) is known from the Banda, Damar and Tanimbar islands in the southern Moluccas. 

Boulenger’s cylinder snake (Cylindrophis aruensis) is known only from the Aru Islands and Damar in the Barat Daya Islands. 

Rueppell’s big-eyed tree frog (Nyctimystes rueppelli) is confined to Halmahera and Morotai in the northern Moluccas, where it is threatened by loss of habitat. 

Morotai 

Morotai (Pulau Morotai in Indonesian) is a rugged, forested island located north of Halmahera. 

The dusky friarbird (Philemon fuscicapillus) is a type of honeybird that was considered to be very common on Morotai prior to World War II, but is today threatened by the loss of its lowland forest habitat. 

The Moluccan bent-toed gecko (Cyrtodactylus deveti) is endemic toMorotai, where it is known only froma few specimens. 

Horst’s cross frog (Oreophryne frontifasciata) is known with certainty only from Morotai, but may occur on Halmahera, Selawati, and Geg as well. 

Halmahera 

Halmahera (Pulau Halmahera in Indonesian) is the largest island in the Moluccas, and includes two active volcanoes. It was on here in 1869, between bouts of fever, that Alfred Russel Wallace formulated his own theory of evolution through natural selection. He wrote his ideas down in a letter that he later sent to Charles Darwin. 

The blue-eyed cuscus (Phalanger matabiru) is a type of arboreal marsupial confined to the offshore islands of Ternate and Tidore, where it is still relatively common although subject to hunting for food. 

The ashy-headed flying fox (Pteropus caniceps) is confined to Halmahera and the satellite islands of Btjan, Tidore, and Ternate. 

The drummer rail (Habroptila wallacii) is a flightless species known from only from a few specimens, although sightings have increased in recent years. 

The sombre kingfisher (Todiramphus funebris) is confined to Halmahera, where it is rare and localized. 

Weber’s sailfin lizard (Hydrosaurus weberi) is confined to Halmahera and Ternate. 

The Halmahera keelback (Tropidonophis punctiventris) is a type of snake known only from two specimens collected in 1895. 

The silver tree monitor (Varanus zugorum) is a mysterious species known only from a single specimen purportedly collected on Halmahera, as well as some possible photos taken by animal collectors. 

Boettger’s callulops frog (Callulops boettgeri) is known only from a single specimen collected in northern Halmahera in 1894. The dubious callulops frog (C. dubius) is similarly known only from its original collection during the late nineteenth century from an undefined locality in northern Halmahera. 

The Halmahera rainforest frog (Cophixalus montanus) is known only from a small area of northern Halmahera. 

Gebe 

Gebe (Pulau Gebe in Indonesian) is a small island located east of Halmahera. 

The Gebe cuscus (Phalanger alexandrae) is confined to Gebe, where it is still relatively common but threatened by hunting and habitat destruction. 

The Sula Islands 

The Sula Islands (Kepulauan Sula in Indonesian) are a group located in the western Moluccas. 

The Sula jungle flycatcher (Cyornis colonus) is confined to Taliabu, Seho, Mangole, and Sanana. 

Taliabu 

Taliabu (Pulau Taliabu in Indonesian) is the largest island in the Sula group. 

The Taliabu masked owl (Tyto nigrobrunnea) is known only from a single specimen and a few subsequent sight records. 

Sanana 

Sanana is the southernmost of the Sula Islands. 

Kopstein’s callulops frog (Callulops kopsteini) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1930. 

Obira 

Obira (Pulau Obira in Indonesian) is one of a small group of islands north of Buru and Seram known as the Obi Islands. 

The carunculated fruit dove (Ptilinopus granulifrons) is endemic to the island, where it remains common. 

Buru 

Buru (Pulau Buru in Indonesian) is a large island to the west of Seram. Although its lowland forests have been largely degraded and cleared, two large, contiguous blocks remain. 

The Buru babirusa (Babyrousa babyrussa) is confined to Buru as well as on two of the Sula Islands (Mangole and Taliabu). It formerly also occurred on Sanana in the Sula Islands, but is believed to have been extirpated from there. 

The black-lored parrot (Tanygnathus gramineus) is a somewhat mysterious species that is rarely observed.

The blue-throated lorikeet (Charmosyna toxopei) is confined to Buru, where it is known only from a few specimens and rarely observed. 

The rufous-throated white-eye (Madanga ruficollis) is known from four specimens collected prior to 1920, along with a few more recent records from remote mountainous areas. 

Seram 

Seram (Pulau Seram in Indonesian; formerly known as Ceram) is the second largest island of the Moluccas. Manusela National Park, established in 1997, is located in the eastern part of the island. 

The Seram bandicoot (Rhynchomeles prattorum) is a type of terrestrial marsupial known only from seven specimens collected in 1920. 

The Seram mountain rat (Nesoromys ceramicus) is known from four specimens collected on Mount Mansuela. 

Four species of mosaic-tailed rat (Melomys) are endemic to Seram. The Seram mosaic-tailed rat (M. fulgens) is known only from two specimens collected in 1920. The Mansuela mosaic-tailed rat (M. fraterculus) is known only from a single specimen collected on Mount Mansuela in 1920. Pavel’s mosaic-tailed rat (M. paveli) is known only from a single specimen collected in 2003. The dusky mosaic-tailed rat (M. aerosus) is confined to a few montane areas on Seram. 

The Seram masked owl (Tyto almae) was first described in 2013, and known only from a couple of records. 

Boano 

Boano (Pulau Boano in Indonesian) is located at the western end of Seram. 

The black-chinned monarch (Symposiachrus boanensis) was long known only from a single specimen collected in 1918, but was rediscovered in 1991. It appears to be very rare and confined to a small area of mountain forest. 

The Banda Islands 

The Banda Islands (Kepulauan Banda in Indonesian) are a group of 10 small volcanic islands in the Banda Sea, about 140 km south of Seram. 

The Banda Islands dtella (Gehyra barea) is a type of gecko endemic to the lowland rainforests of the Banda Islands. 

The Kai Islands 

The Kai Islands (Kepulauan Kai in Indonesian) are located in the south-eastern Moluccas. 

The Kai flying fox (Pteropus keyensis) is confined to the Kai Islands. 

Great Kai Island 

Great Kai Island (Kai Besar in Indonesian) is the largest of the Kai Islands. It has been heavily logged. 

The Great Kai mosaic-tailed rat (Melomys bannisteri) is confined to Great Kai Island. 

The Great Kai giant naked-tailed rat (Uromys siebersi) is confined to Great Kai Island. 

The Barat Daya Islands 

The Barat Daya Islands (Kepulauan Barat Daya in Indonesian) are part of the same volcanic arc as the Banda Islands. 

Wetar 

Wetar (Pulau Wetar in Indonesian) is the largest of Barat Daya Islands. 

The Wetar bent-toed gecko (Cyrtodactylus wetariensis) is known only from a few specimens collected on Wetar. 

Damar 

Damar (Pulau Damar in Indonesian) is a small volcanic island flanked by four smaller islands. 

The Damar flycatcher (Ficedula henrici) was long known only from 14 specimens collected on Damar in 1898. Recent reports indicate that it remains relatively common. 

The Tanimbar Islands 

The Tanimbar Islands are an archipelago of about 65 islands located in the central and southern Moluccas. 

The Tanimbar cockatoo (Cacatua goffiniana) is historically known from the islands of Yamdena, Larat, and Selaru in the Tanimbar Islands, where it is threatened by overcollection for the international pet trade, habitat destruction, persecution as a crop pest, and hunting for food. The species remains relatively common in any case, and has been introduced to the Kai Islands of Indonesia as well as to Puerto Rico and Singapore. 

Yamdena 

Yamdena is the largest of the Tanimbar Islands. Most of the original forest has been clear-cut. 

The Yamdena mosaic-tailed rat (Melomys cooperae) is known only from its original type series collected in 1995. 

The Saumlaki frog (Litoria capitula) is known only from its original collection in the 1960s. 

Riama 

Riama is a small island located south of Yamdena. 

The Riama mosaic-tailed rat (Melomys howi) is known only from Riama, but may occur on other islands within the Tanimbar Archipelago. 

The Aru Islands 

The Aru Islands (Kepulauan Aru in Indonesian) are a group of about 95 low-lying, swampy islands located south-west of New Guinea in the Arafura Sea. Uniquely among the Moluccas they have a purely Papuan fauna including kangaroos, cassowaries, and birds of paradise. General threats include conversion of forests into sugar cane plantations. 

The Aru flying fox (Pteropus aruensis) has not been positively recorded since 1877 and is almost certainly extinct. Given its large size it is thought that hunting was the likely cause. 

The white-naped pheasant-pigeon (Otidiphaps aruensis) is confined to the Aru Islands, where it is considered to be rare. 

The black tree monitor (Varanus beccarii) is confined to the Aru Islands. 

The Aru gudgeon (Bostrichthys aruensis) is a fresh-and brackish water fish confined to the Aru Islands. 

Wokam Island 

Wokam Island (Tanah Besar in Indonesian) is one of the four main islands in the Aru Island group. 

The Wokam skink (Sphenomorphus rufus) is confined to Wokam Island. 

The Lesser Sunda Islands 

The Lesser Sunda Islands (Kepulauan Nusa Tenggara – ‘southeastern archipelago’ – in Indonesian) consist of two geologically distinct archipelagos comprising numerous small islands, often divided by deep ocean trenches. The northern ‘inner’ group includes Bali (discussed in the Sundaic Region section), Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores and Wetar, and is volcanic in origin. The islands of the southern ‘outer’ group include Sumba, Timor, and Babar, and are non-volcanic. Movement of flora and fauna between the islands is limited, leading to the evolution of a high rate of localized species. The so-called Wallace’s Line, previously discussed, passes between Bali and Lombok and marks the boundary between the Sundaic and Wallacean zoogeographic regions. 

The Lesser Sunda rat (Komodomys rintjanus) is known only from Rintja, Padar, Lomblen, and Pantar, although it probably occurs on other islands in the Lesser Sunda chain. It is possibly under threat from introduced rats. 

The Lesser Sunda flying fox (Pteropus lombocensis) is known from Lombok, Sumbawa, Komodo, Flores, Lomblen, Pantar, Alor, and Timor. It is threatened by hunting, roost disturbance and habitat destruction. 

The Lesser Sunda fruit bat (Acerodon mackloti) is known from Lombok, Sumbawa, Sumba, Flores, Timor, Alor, and Moyo. It is threatened by hunting, roost disturbance and habitat destruction. 

The Lesser Sunda hawk-eagle (Nisaetus floris) is confined to Flores, Sumbawa, Lombok and Alor as well as two small satellite islands (Satonda near Sumbawa, and Rinca near Flores), with occasional vagrants on Komodo. The species is everywhere rare and seriously threatened by loss of habitat. 

The Lesser Sunda yellow-crested cockatoo (Cacatua sulphurea occidentalis) is confined to Lombok, Sumbawa, Komodo, Flores, Alor and various smaller islands, where it is threatened by overcollection for the international cage-bird trade and by loss of habitat. 

The Lesser Sunda green pigeon (Treron floris) is known from the islands of Sumbawa, Flores, Besar, Solor, Lembata, Pantar, and Alor, and may also occur on a few other islands as well, such as Komodo. The species is everywhere rare and threatened by loss of habitat and hunting. 

Hoedt’s ground dove (Pampusana hoedtii) is confined to Timor and Wetar, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and hunting. 

The Tenggara hill myna (Gracula venerata) is confined to the western Lesser Sunda Islands from Lombok and Sumbawa east to Pantar and Alor. It is heavily targeted by trappers throughout its range for use in the cage-bird trade. 

The Komodo monitor (Varanus komodoensis) is the world’s largest lizard, sometimes reaching 3 m in length. Found only on Komodo, Rinca, Gili Motang, Padar, and the north-western coastal part of Flores, this species has suffered declines over the past century mainly due to loss of habitat and hunters killing off its prey (generally rusa deer andwild boar). In 1966 all ofKomodo Island, where the majority of the population is found, was declared a strict nature reserve, and has since been expanded into a National Park encompassing it as well as Padar, Rinca, and 26 smaller islands. In recent years rising sea levels due to climate change has emerged as a new threat to the species. 

Schmutz’s worm snake (Typhlops schmutzi) is known only from the northern coast of Flores and Komodo. 

Everett’s frog (Litoria everetti) is known only from Timor, Sumba, Sawu, and Alor. 

Lombok 

Lombok (Pulau Lombok in Indonesian) is a roughly circular island located east of Bali and west of Sumbawa. It is dominated by the highly active stratovolcano Mount Rinjani, the second highest volcano in Indonesia. 

The Lombok bent-toed gecko (Cyrtodactylus gordongekkoi) is known only from two specimens collected on Lombok in 1992. 

Sumbawa 

Sumbawa is a grassy island located between Lombok and Flores. 

The Sumbawa sunset lorikeet (Trichoglossus forsteni forsteni) is confined to Sumbawa. 

Flores 

Flores (Pulau Flores in Indonesian) is a large island located east of Sumbawa and north of Sumba and Timor. As already mentioned, the western coast of this island is one of the few places in the world where the Komodo monitor (Varanus komodoensis) is to be found in the wild, and is part of Komodo National Park. 

Hainald’s rat (Rattus hainaldi) is confined to Flores. 

Paula’s long-nosed rat (Paulamys naso) is confined to montane forest on Flores. 

The Flores pygmy white-toothed shrew (Suncus mertensi) is known only from a single specimen collected on western Flores in the 1970s. 

The Flores scops owl (Otus alfredi) was originally collected on Mount Repok in 1896 and not seen again until two specimens were collected in 1994 in the Ruteng Mountains. It is now seen fairly regularly by birdwatchers throughout Flores. 

The Flores hanging parrot (Loriculus flosculus) is confined to Flores and satellite islands. 

The Flores crow (Corvus florensis) is confined to Flores and Rinca. 

The Flores monarch (Symposiachrus sacerdotum) is confined to western Flores. 

The Flores ground snake (Stegonotus florensis) is known only from Flores, but may occur as well on Sumba and Semau. 

The Flores oriental frog (Occidozyga floresiana) is confined to Flores. 

The Flores cross frog (Oreophryne rookmaakeri) is confined to eastern Flores. 

The Solor Archipelago 

The Solor Archipelago (Kepulauan Solor in Indonesian) is a group of islands lying to the east of Flores and west of the Alor Archipelago. 

Lembata 

Lembata (formerly known as Lomblen) is the largest island in the Solor Archipelago. 

The Lembata long-eared bat (Nyctophilus heran) is only known from a single specimen collected from Lembata. 

The Alor Archipelago 

The Alor Archipelago (Kepulauan Alor in Indonesian) is located in the eastern Lesser Sunda Islands. 

Alor 

Alor (Pulau Alor in Indonesian, and also known as Ternate) is a rugged volcanic island and the largest of the Alor group.

Johnstone’s mastiff bat (Otomops johnstonei) is known only from a single specimen collected on Alor Island in 1991. 

Sumba 

Sumba (Pulau Sumba in Indonesian) is the westernmost of the southern group of Lesser Sunda Islands, and consists of low limestone hills. Most of the original forest has been cleared for the planting of crops, with only small isolated patches remaining. In 1998 two National Parks were designated. 

The Sumba hornbill (Rhyticeros everetti) is confined to Sumba, where it is threatened by deforestation outside of protected areas. 

The Sumba yellow-crested cockatoo (Cacatua sulphurea citrinocristata) is confined to Sumba, where the total population was estimated at 562 in 2012. 

The Sumba buttonquail (Turnix everetti) is confined to dry, scrubby areas on Sumba. 

The red-naped fruit dove (Ptilinopus dohertyi) is confined to Sumba. 

Timor 

Timor (Pulau Timor in Indonesian) is a large island at the eastern end of the Lesser Sunda archipelago southern group and, like Sumba, non-volcanic. Much of the original dry deciduous forest has been cleared for agriculture and, apart from a large block in the centre of the island, only patches now remain. 

Buhler’s giant rat (Coryphomys buehleri) is known only from subfossil remains. One of four extinct giant rat species known to have lived on Timor, it is the only one to be formally described. 

The Timor forest rat (Rattus timorensis) is confined to montane forest on Timor. Although the subfossil record indicates it was formerly abundant, only a single living specimen has ever been collected (in 1990). 

The Timor shrew (Crocidura tenuis) is confined to Timor. 

The Timor leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros crumeniferus) is confined to Timor. 

The Timor horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus montanus) is confined to Timor. 

The Timor yellow-crested cockatoo (Cacatua sulphurea parvula) is confined to Timor. 

The Timor green pigeon (Treron psittaceus) is confined to Timor and the satellite islands of Semau and Rote, where it is rare. 

McCord’s snake-necked turtle (Chelodina mccordi) is divided into two subspecies. The Timor snake-necked turtle (C. m. timorensis) is confined to Timor, where it is seriously threatened. 

The Timor skink (Eremiascincus timorensis) is confined to Timor, where it was first described in 1990. 

Roti 

Located south-west of Timor, Roti (Pulau Roti in Indonesian) is the southernmost island in Indonesia. 

Until recently, the Roti snake-necked turtle (Chelodina mccordi mccordi) occurred in three populations on this single small island. It is now extinct in the wild due to collection for the international pet trade, where it commands high prices.

 

Anthropogenic effects on the flora and fauna

There is evidence of early hominins living in what is now the Philippines as early as 709,000 years ago. The oldest modern human remains found on the islands are from the Tabon Caves of Palawan, which have been dated to around 47,000 years ago. This ‘Tabon Man’ was presumably a Negrito, who were among the archipelago’s earliest inhabitants and descendants of the first human migrations out of Africa via the coastal route along southern Asia to the now sunken landmasses of Sundaland and Sahul. The first Austronesians and perhaps other Asian peoples reached the Philippines around 2200 bc and quickly assimilated the existing Negritos. Other islands have a similar history. 

Early European exploration of the Wallacean Region was undertaken by Portuguese mariners. In 1511–12 Antonio de Abreu sailed through the Strait of Malacca between Sumatra and Bangka, and along the coasts of Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, and Flores to the ‘Spice Islands’ (i.e. the Moluccas). In 1525 his countrymen reached ‘Celebes’ (modern Sulawesi), and explored the Moluccas around the same time. During the early 1520s Ferdinand Magellan and his Spanish expedition reached the Moloccas before continuing westward to what would eventually be the first circumnavigation of the globe. What is now the Philippines became a part of the Spanish East Indies during the sixteenth century. Since the independence of the countries within the region a massive population increase and a corresponding increase in deforestation and hunting has been the hallmark. In recent historical time (i.e. since ad 1500), the Wallacean Region has lost at least 22 species/14 subspecies of vertebrates. Among the extinct forms 2 species/2 subspecies are mammals, 12 subspecies are birds, 2 species are reptiles, 1 species is an amphibian, and 17 species are freshwater fishes. Another 7 species/2 subspecies are possibly extinct, and 2 subspecies are currently extinct in the wild. 

In addition, there are 492 species/35 subspecies currently threatened with extinction (that is to say, either Critically Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable according to the IUCN Red List, as well as certain forms either listed as Data Deficient or Not Assessed but which are clearly at some risk of extinction). Of these, 153 species/12 subspecies are mammals, 146 species/21 subspecies are birds, 88 species/2 subspecies are reptiles, 60 species are amphibians, and 45 species are freshwater fishes.

 

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