The Sino-Himalayan Region
The Sino-Himalayan Region extends from the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas through the temperate and subtropical, mostly mountainous areas of northern India, China, and northern Indochina to the Japanese Archipelago and Taiwan. It is bordered on the north by the drier parts of the Eurasian Region and on the south by the lowland rainforests and grasslands of the Indo-Malaysian Realm.
Species and subspecies
The South China tiger (Panthera tigris amoyensis) was formerly distributed in a large part of eastern and central China northward to 38–40° N. latitude. Heavily hunted for decades, it is now the most critically endangered subspecies of tiger and, indeed, one of the most threatened animals in the world. Despite unconfirmed reports and some evidence of footprints, there have been no confirmed sightings since the 1970s, leading experts to consider it already functionally extinct in the wild. The entire known population of roughly 65 individuals is currently held in captivity.
The Himalayan wild dog (Cuon alpinus laniger) occurs in southern Tibet, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and Kashmir. The thin-tailed wild dog (C. a. lepturus) is found in China south of the Yangtze River. Both are threatened by loss of habitat, depletion of their prey base and human persecution.
The Indochinese clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) is a medium-sized wild cat found patchily over much of southern and eastern Asia, where it has long been hunted for its beautiful fur.
The western black crested gibbon (Nomascus concolor) lives primarily in the mountainous areas of southern China, northern Vietnam, and northern Laos, and is seriously threatened by habitat destruction and hunting. The Tonkin black crested gibbon (N. c. concolor) is found in southern China (south-western Yunnan) and northern Vietnam (Lao Cai, Yen Bai, Son La, and Lai Chau provinces), roughly between the Black and Red rivers.
The Tonkin snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus avunculus) has long been confined to areas east of the Red River in far north-eastern Vietnam. Since the mid-twentieth century it has suffered a serious decline due to loss of habitat and hunting, and is now confined to a few areas of steep, karstic forest in Tuyen Quang, Bac Kan, Ha Giang, and Thai Nguyen provinces. In 2008 fewer than 250 were thought to exist.
The white-headed langur (Trachypithecus leucocephalus) is a type of leaf-eating monkey found patchily within a small area of south-western China (Guangxi), where the total population is thought to be less than 250. Shortridge’s langur (T. shortridgei) occurs in south-western China (Yunnan) and north-eastern Myanmar. Both are threatened by loss of habitat and hunting for food as well as use in ‘traditional medicine’.
Perhaps the most dramatic history of any animal faced with extinction is that of Père David’s deer (Elaphurus davidianus). In ancient times this deer had a wide range in China and occurred in Japan as well, but as early as the Shang dynasty (1766–1122 B.C.) it seems to have been exterminated in the wild. Like so many other deer in China, however, it survived in parks. It was in one of these reserves, the imperial hunting park near Peking (present-day Beijing), that a French missionary, Father David, came upon the last remaining herd. Father David managed to send a number of the animals to European zoos, so that by about 1870 there were small herds at several zoological gardens. This came none too soon, because when floods broke through the imperial walls of the hunting park in 1894, many deer escaped and were killed by peasants. And in 1900 foreign troops sent to Peking during the Boxer Rebellion killed almost all the deer. The few that remained were sent to the Peking Zoo, but by 1921 these, too, were dead. After the events of 1900, the eleventh Duke of Bedford at Woburn Abbey in Bedfordshire, England undertook to help the deer by collecting a herd of 16 animals from European zoos. Today, all survivors derive from this herd. By the early 1960s there were some 400 deer in over 40 zoos all over the world, including Beijing. In the mid-1980s the species was reintroduced into semi-captive facilities in China, prior to being established in protected areas of intact coastal grassland.
The sambar deer (Rusa unicolor) is a large species found over a wide area of southern and south-eastern Asia, where it is divided into a number of subspecies. Dejean’s sambar deer (R. u. dejeani) is confined to southern and south-western China.
The Chinese goral (Naemorhedus griseus) is a small, goatlike ungulate found in the mountainous regions of China, Myanmar, India, Thailand, Vietnam, and possibly Laos. It is threatened by overhunting.
Milne-Edwards’ serow (Capricornis milneedwardsii) is a goat-like species found widely but patchily in forests and rocky areas throughout Central and South East Asia, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and hunting. The pangolins or scaly anteaters are a group found throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of Africa and southern Asia. They are among the most illegally traded animals in the world today, as their protective scales and other body parts are highly valued for use in ‘traditional medicine’.
The Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) is still found over much of the northern Indian subcontinent, northern South East Asia and southern China (including Taiwan and Hainan), but has been extirpated from many areas.
Reeves’ pheasant (Syrmaticus reevesii) is endemic to temperate forest fragments in central and north-eastern China, where it is threatened by habitat destruction, hunting, and overcollection of its eggs. The species has been successfully introduced to various parts of Europe and to Hawaii. Elliot’s pheasant (S. ellioti) is endemic to south-eastern China (Guizhou, Hubei, Anhui, Zhejiang, Fujian, Jiangxi, Hunan, Guangxi, and Guangdong), where it lives in both lowland and montane forests. While not immediately threatened, habitat destruction is a concern, as is hunting for food.
The brown-chested jungle flycatcher (Cyornis brunneatus) is a rare species that breeds in the lowland forests of southeastern China and winters in the southern Malay Peninsula.
The fairy pitta (Pitta nympha) is a brightly coloured passerine bird that breeds in Japan, South Korea, south-eastern China and Taiwan, from where it migrates in winter mainly to the island of Borneo. The total population is very small and seriously threatened by loss of habitat and trapping for the cage-bird trade.
The Naung Mung wren-babbler (Rimator naungmungensis) is known only from a small area of far northern Myanmar (Kachin state).
The Chinese grass-babbler (Graminicola striatus) is found disjunctly in wetland areas across much of South and South East Asia, with small resident populations in central and south-eastern China (Guangxi, Guangdong, Hainan, and Hong Kong) and central Myanmar. Vagrants have been found in Thailand, Vietnam, and Cambodia. It is everywhere under threat by loss of habitat.
The beautiful nuthatch (Sitta formosa) is a rare species found patchily over a wide area of north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, and West Bengal), Bhutan, northern and eastern Myanmar, south-western China (Yunnan), and extreme north-western Thailand. It is threatened by the loss of large trees upon which it depends.
Several species and subspecies of Asian box turtle (Cuora) number among the most heavily trafficked and seriously threatened in the world, being much sought after both by the international pet trade and for use in ‘traditional medicine’. Zhou’s box turtle (C. zhoui) is known only from Chinese food market specimens and from a relatively small number of captive individuals in Germany and the United States. The species appears most likely to originate from a very small area of extreme northern Vietnam and possibly adjacent southern China (south-eastern Yunnan or western Guangxi), although it has never been scientifically recorded in the wild. The Chinese yellow-headed box turtle (C. aurocapitata) is known only from a small area of central-eastern China (Anhui). McCord’s box turtle (C. mccordi) was originally described in 1988 from a single specimen obtained from the Chinese pet trade. It was unknown from the wild until 2007, when a small population was discovered in southern China (central Guangxi). Pan’s box turtle (C. pani) is confined to central China (Shaanxi, Sichuan, and Hubei). The Chinese threestriped box turtle (C. trifasciata) was historically widespread and common in southern China (Guangxi, Guangdong, and Fujian) as well as on the islands of Hainan, Macau, and Hong Kong (the latter two populations most likely having been introduced). The species has been extirpated from mainland China, and now survives only on the aforementioned islands. The Vietnamese three-striped box turtle (C. cyclornata) was historically found in southern China (Guangxi), northern Vietnam, and northern Laos. Nearly extinct in the wild, it is well-established on Chinese turtle farms. The yellow-margined box turtle (C. flavomarginata) as a species is widespread in central and eastern China (Hunan, Henan, Anhui, Hubei, Chongging, Sichuan, Zhejiang, and Jiangsu) as well as Taiwan and southern Japan. The Chinese yellow-margined box turtle (C. f. flavomarginata) is the subspecies found over the majority of this range, but is everywhere seriously threatened.
Bourret’s skink (Sphenomorphus tritaeniatus) is known only from two localities within the Red River delta region of northern Vietnam.
The Chinese cobra (Naja atra) is still found over a relatively wide area of south-eastern China (including the islands of Hainan, Hong Kong, and Macao), northern Vietnam, and northern Laos. It is threatened by human persecution and overcollection for use in ‘traditional medicine’.
The Assamese bug-eyed tree frog (Theloderma moloch) is known only from a few localities in north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh and Assam).
Khare’s gliding frog (Pterorana khare) in known only from a few disjunct localities in north-eastern India (Assam and Nagaland).
Mountains and Highlands
Mountains and highlands within the Sino-Himalayan Region include the Himalayas along with certain of the southern foothills, as well as the Tibetan and Yunnan-Guizhou plateaus and various smaller mountain ranges and plateaus in China, northern Myanmar, and northern Vietnam.
The golden snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) is found in the temperate mountainous forests of central China, where it is divided into three subspecies. The Moupin golden snub-nosed monkey (R. r. roxellana) is confined to western Sichuan, southern Gansu, and southern Shaanxi. The Myanmar snub-nosed monkey (R. strykeri) was unexpectedly discovered in 2010 in high-altitude forest in northern Myanmar (Kachin State), and has since been found in the Gaoligong Mountains of neighbouring south-western China (Yunnan). The species is seriously threatened by loss of habitat and hunting.
The iconic giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) was historically widespread throughout central and south-eastern China, being found as far north as Beijing and south into parts of South East Asia. The better-known black and white form (A. m. melanoleuca) now has a very restricted and fragmented range in the high mountains of Sichuan, Shaanxi, and Gansu provinces, where it exists exclusively in middle-elevation forests with a dense understory of bamboo. The largest populations are currently found in the Min and Qionglai ranges, with smaller, more isolated ones remaining in the Liangshan, Daxiangling, and Xiaoxiangling mountains.
The takin (Budorcas taxicolor) is a muskox-like goat-antelope found in heavily forested montane areas of north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim), Bhutan, western China (Gansu, Sichuan, Shannxi, Tibet, and Yunnan), and northern Myanmar. Several subspecies are threatened by hunting and habitat destruction. The Mishmi takin (B. t. taxicolor) is found in western China (Tibet and Yunnan) and northern Myanmar. The Sichuan takin (B. t. tibetana) is found in Tibet and western China (Yunnan).
The Tibetan argali (Ovis ammon hodgsoni) is a type of wild sheep found in western and central China. It is threatened by poaching and competition with introduced livestock.
The red goral (Naemorhedus baileyi) is a type of goat antelope confined to the temperate mountains of southwestern China (Tibet and Yunnan), north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh), and northern Myanmar. It is threatened by habitat destruction and illegal hunting.
Two subspecies of elk or wapiti (Cervus canadensis) occurring on the Tibetan Plateau and nearby regions are also threatened. MacNeil’s deer (C. c. macneilli) has long been intensively hunted for its antler velvet, which is believed to have aphrodisiac properties. The Tibetan deer (C. c. wallichi) of south-eastern Tibet and Bhutan was thought to be extinct until its rediscovery in 1995.
The South China sika deer (Cervus nippon kopschi) was historically found throughout the Yangtze River drainage east to the coast and as far south as the border with Vietnam. Today, the surviving population of around 300 is widely scattered across its former range in remote mountains isolated by heavily populated lowlands. About 30 exist in the Tianmu Mountains of northern Zhejiang, 70–100 in southern Anhui, and 150 in northern Jiangxi. The population size in southern Guangxi is unknown, and a tiny number may still exist in northern Guangdong as well. Ongoing poaching as well as inbreeding are the main threats.
The tufted deer (Elaphodus cephalophus) is a small, muntjaclike species historically found widely within central and southern China and northern Myanmar, where it has suffered significant declines due to hunting. The south-western tufted deer (E. c. cephalophus) is found in south-western China and (at least historically) northern Myanmar, although it has perhaps been extirpated from the latter country. The south-eastern tufted deer (E. c. michianus) is confined to south-eastern China. The central tufted deer (E. c. ichangensis) is found in central China.
The black muntjac (Muntiacus crinifrons) is a type of deer confined to the montane forests of Zhejiang, Anhui, Jiangxi, and Fujian in south-eastern China. Up until 1975 it was known only from a few specimens and was considered the rarest deer in the world. It has since been shown to be more populous than previously thought but nevertheless threatened. Heavily harvested throughout the twentieth century (at least 2000 were killed in 1978 alone), the current population is estimated at between 5000 and 10,000.
Several species and subspecies of musk deer (Moschus) are seriously threatened by hunting for use in ‘traditional medicine’, as well as loss of habitat. The black musk deer (M. fuscus) is found in south-western China (Yunnan and Tibet), northern Myanmar, Bhutan, north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh), and eastern Nepal. The dwarf musk deer (M. berezovskii) is found widely in the mountains of central and southern China, northern Vietnam, and possibly northern Laos. A number of ill-defined subspecies have been described, including Berezovski’s dwarf musk deer (M. b. berezovskii), the Bijang dwarf musk deer (M. b. bijanensis), the Cao Bang dwarf musk deer (M. b. caobangis), and the Yunnan-Guizhou dwarf musk deer (M. b. yanguiensis). The alpine musk deer (M. chrysogaster) is found in the mountains of northern and central China.
The red panda (Ailurus fulgens) is a racoon-like species that, despite its name, is not closely related to the giant panda. It is native to the eastern Himalayas and the mountains of south-western China, where it is usually divided into two subspecies. The Himalayan red panda (A. f. fulgens) is found in north-eastern India (Sikkim, Assam, West Bengal, and Arunachal Pradesh), Nepal, and Bhutan, while Styan’s red panda (A. f. styani) is found in northern Myanmar (Kachin State) and south-western China (Sichuan, Yunnan, and Tibet). Both are threatened by habitat destruction.
The Sichuan weasel (Mustela russelliana) is known only from three collection records within a small area of northcentral China (Sichuan).
The Muong Bang stripe-bellied rat (Pseudoberylmys muongbangensis) is known only from a single locality in northern Vietnam (Son La province).
The Sichuan dormouse (Chaetocauda sichuanensis) is known only from five specimens collected from the mountains of central China (northern Sichuan).
Crump’s mouse (Diomys crumpi) is known only from a few widely separated localities in northern India (Bihar and Manipur), southern Nepal, and northern Myanmar.
The Duke of Bedford’s vole (Proedromys bedfordi) is known only from a small area in the mountains of central China (southern Gansu and northern Sichuan).
The dusky shrew (Sorex sinalis) is known only from a few
mountaintop localities spread over a relatively wide area of central China (Gansu, Sichuan, and Shaanxi). The Gansu shrew (S. cansulus) is known only from a few areas of Gansu, Qinghai, and Tibet.
The dusky tube-nosed bat (Murina fusca) is known only from a single locality in north-eastern China (Heilongjiang).
Anthony’s pipistrelle bat (Hypsugo anthonyi) is known only from a single specimen collected in the 1940s in northeastern Myanmar.
Several species and subspecies of eared pheasant (Crossoptilon) are endemic to small areas of China. The brown-eared pheasant (C. mantchuricum) is confined to a few scattered areas of montane forest in northern central China (Shanxi, Hebei, and Shaanxi). Those populations outside of protected areas are threatened by habitat destruction. The white-eared pheasant (C. crossoptilon) is found in westcentral and south-western China, where it is divided into three subspecies. The Sichuan white-eared pheasant (C. c. crossoptilon) is confined to Sichuan. The Yunnan whiteeared pheasant (C. c. lichiangnse) is confined to Yunnan. Drouyn’s white-eared pheasant (C. c. drouyni) is found in Tibet and Qinghai. All are threatened by deforestation and hunting for food.
Cabot’s tragopan (Tragopan caboti) is a type of pheasant found patchily in the montane forests of south-eastern China, where it is divided into two subspecies. The eastern Cabot’s tragopan (T. c. caboti) occurs in Fujian, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, and Guangdong, while the western Cabot’s tragopan (T. c. guangxiensis) is confined to north-eastern Guangxi and southern Hunan. The grey-bellied tragopan (T. blythii) is divided into two subspecies. Blyth’s grey-bellied tragopan (T. b. blythii) occurs in the Himalayas of north-eastern India through south-western China and north-western Myanmar. All are threatened by loss of habitat and high hunting and snaring pressure.
Sclater’s monal (Lophophorus sclateri) is a type of pheasant divided into two subspecies. The eastern Sclater’s monal (L. s. sclateri) is found in the Himalayas of north-eastern India, northern Myanmar, and south-western China (Tibet and Yunnan). The western Sclater’s monal (L. s. arunachalensis) is confined to north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh).
The Sichuan partridge (Arborophila rufipectus) is confined to a few montane forest fragments in central China (southcentral Sichuan and possibly north-eastern Yunnan). It is threatened by hunting and habitat destruction.
The grey-sided thrush (Turdus feae) breeds in a small mountainous area of north-eastern China (Shanxi, Hebei, and Beijing), from where it migrates in winter to north-eastern India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, and Laos. It is threatened by deforestation.
The white-spotted laughingthrush (Garrulax bieti) is confined to the mountains of central China (north-western Yunnan and south-western Sichuan).
The rufous-headed robin (Larvivora ruficeps) breeds only in a few areas of northern China (north-central Sichuan and southern Shaanxi), from where it migrates to the Malay Peninsula and Cambodia. It is threatened by forest loss and overcollection for use as cage birds.
The black-throated blue robin (Calliope obscura) was first discovered in 1891 in the mountains of north-central China (Sichuan, Gansu, and Shaanxi). Only a handful of individuals were seen again until 2011, when its breeding grounds were discovered in the Qinling Mountains. The species is thought to migrate to southern China and northern Thailand.
The grey-hooded parrotbill (Sinosuthora zappeyi) is confined to the mountains of central China (south-central Sichuan and western Guizhou).
The Emei liocichla (Liocichla omeiensis) is a type of passerine bird known from the mountains of central China (south-central Sichuan and extreme north-eastern Yunnan).
The golden-fronted fulvetta (Schoeniparus variegaticeps) is a type of passerine bird known only from a few localities in the mountains of south-central China (Sichuan and Guangxi).
The giant nuthatch (Sitta magna) was historically found throughout the mountains of south-western China (Yunnan), north-western Thailand, and central and eastern Myanmar, but may now be extirpated from the latter country. It is threatened by the loss of large trees upon which it depends.
The Yunnan gecko (Gekko scabridus) is a poorly known species from the mountains of south-western China (Sichuan and Yunnan).
The Sichuan pit viper (Sinovipera sichuanensis) is known only from two specimens collected in western China (southern Sichuan).
The Sichuan rat snake (Euprepiophis perlacea) is known only from a few mountainous areas of western China (western Sichuan).
Angel’s keelback (Rhabdophis angeli) is a type of snake known only from a few specimens collected in the 1930s from a small area of northern Vietnam (Thai Nguyen and Vinh Phuc provinces).
The Sichuan hot-spring keelback (Thermophis zhaoermii) is confined to a small area of central China (Sichuan).
The Chapa flat-nosed keelback (Hebius chapaensis) is known only from a small area of montane forest in northern Vietnam, where it was last reported in the early twentieth century. The Wa keelback (H. metusium) is known only from two localities in central China (Sichuan).
The Yunnan mountain snake (Plagiopholis unipostocularis) is known only from a single specimen collected from an imprecise locality in southern China (Yunnan).
The Ningshan kukri snake (Stichophanes ningshaanensis) is known only from a single locality in central China (Shaanxi).
Lacroix’s kukri snake (Oligodon lacroixi) is known only from three localities across a relatively wide area of southwestern China (Yunnan and Sichuan) and northern Vietnam.
Blyth’s reticulated snake (Blythia reticulata) appears to have been found historically across a wide area of north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, and Meghalaya), northern Myanmar, and possibly southern China (Tibet), although in recent decades it has only been recorded from Myanmar (Chin State).
The Tam Dao stream snake (Opisthotropis tamdaoensis) is known only from Tam Dao National Park in northern Vietnam (Vinh Phuc province).
The Lichuan bell toad (Bombina lichuanensis) is known only from two localities in northern China (Hubei and Sichuan). It probably occurs more widely, especially in area between the two known sites, but is nevertheless thought to be threatened by loss of habitat.
Several lazy toads of the genus Oreolalax are endemic to small areas of China and Indochina. The Liangbei lazy toad (O. liangbeiensis) is known only from a single small stream in central China (southern Sichuan). Weigold’s lazy toad (O. weigoldi) is known only from a single specimen collected in the 1920s from an imprecise locality in central China (Sichuan). The Chuanbei lazy toad (O. chuanbeiensis) is known only from a small area of central China (northern Sichuan). The Puxiong lazy toad (O. puxiongensis) is known only from a single locality in west-central China (Sichuan). The dotted lazy toad (O. multipunctatus) and the Emei lazy toad (O. omeimontis) are both confined to a small area of central China (south-western Sichuan).
Several lazy toads of the genus Scutiger are threatened by habitat destruction and degradation. The Chinting lazy toad (S. chintingensis) is known only from a small area of central China (Sichuan). The Ningshan lazy toad (S. ningshanensis) is known only from two specimens collected from a single locality in central China (southern Shaanxi). The Muli lazy toad (S. muliensis) is known only from a single locality in central China (south-western Sichuan). The Jiulong lazy toad (S. jiulongensis) is known only from a single locality in central China (southern Sichuan). The spotted lazy toad (S. maculatus) is known only from two localities in western China (northwestern Sichuan and eastern Tibet). The Pingwu lazy toad (S. pingwuensis) is known only from two localities in central China (north-eastern Sichuan and southern Gansu). The Liupan lazy toad (S. liupanensis) is confined to a few localities in central China (Gansu province and Ningxia Autonomous Region). The bumpy lazy toad (S. tuberculatus) is confined to a small area of central China (southern Sichuan). The Adung lazy toad (S. adungensis) is known for certain only from two specimens collected from the Adung Valley in northern Myanmar in 1931.
The Chapa bug-eyed tree frog (Theloderma bicolor) occurs in south-western China (Yunnan) and north-western Vietnam (Quang Tri province), where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
Hu’s gliding tree frog (Rhacophorus hui) is known only from two, relatively distant montane areas of central China (Sichuan and Hubei), but presumably occurs more widely. The Hoanglien gliding tree frog (R. hoanglienensis) is known from two localities in northern Vietnam (Lao Cai and Ha Giang provinces).
Dubois’ gliding tree frog (Zhangixalus duboisi) is known only from two localities in northern Vietnam and southwestern China (Yunnan).
The Jinxiu foam-nest tree frog (Gracixalus jinxiuensis) is known only from a few widely scattered montane localities in southern China (south-eastern Yunnan, north-eastern Guangxi, and southern Hunan) and northern Vietnam (Mount Fan Si Pan). It likely represents a cluster of species, some as yet undescribed.
The Htingnan shrub frog (Philautus tytthus) is known only from its original collection in northern Myanmar in 1940. The Darjeeling shrub frog (P. dubius) is known only from its original collection during the late nineteenth century from an undefined locality in north-eastern India (West Bengal or Meghalaya).
Several odorous frogs of the genus Odorrana are threatened by habitat destruction and overcollection for food. The Jingdong odorous frog (O. jingdongensis) occurs over a relatively wide area of south-western China (Yunnan and Guangxi) and northern Vietnam. The geminated odorous frog (O. geminata) is known from a few localities in southwestern China (south-eastern Yunnan) and north-eastern Vietnam (Ha Giang and Cao Bang provinces). The Trankien odorous frog (O. trankieni) is known only from a single locality in north-eastern Vietnam (Son La province). Ahl’s odorous frog (O. sinica) is known only from a single specimen collected in the early twentieth century from an undefined locality in China. The Tay Yen Tu odorous frog (O. yentuensis) is known only from the Tay Yen Tu Nature Reserve in north-eastern Vietnam (Bac Giang province). The Guangwu odorous frog (O. kuangwuensis) is known from a few localities in central China (Sichuan and Hubei).
The Nanjiang odorous frog (Oreolalax nanjiangensis) is confined to a few isolated localities in central China (Sichuan, Gansu, and Shaanxi), where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
Three species of horned frog (Megophrys) are endemic to small areas of central China, where they are threatened by loss of habitat. The Nankiang horned frog (M. nankiangensis) is known only from a few localities in Sichuan and Gansu. The convex-tailed horned frog (M. caudoprocta) is confined to parts of Hunan and Hubei. The Shuicheng horned frog (M. shuichengensis) is known only from a single locality in western Guizhou.
The Kambaiti cascade frog (Amolops longimanus) is known only from its original collection in 1939 from northern Myanmar. The vitreous cascade frog (A. vitreus) is known only from northern Laos (Phongsaly province) and northern Vietnam (Dien Bien and Son La provinces). The Assamese cascade frog (A. assamensis) is known only from the Mayeng Hill Reserve Forest in north-eastern India (Assam). The Lolokou cascade frog (A. loloensis) is confined to a small area of central China (Sichuan and Yunnan). The minute cascade frog (A. minutus) is known only from Mu Ham Mountain in north-western Vietnam (Lai Chau province), but likely ranges as well into south-western China (Yunnan). The splendid cascade frog (A. splendissimus) is known only from a small area of north-western Vietnam (Lai Chau province).
Boring’s large-eyed litter frog (Leptobrachium boringii) is known from a few localities in central China (Sichuan, Guizhou, and Hunan), where it is threatened by overcollection for human consumption and the international pet trade, as well as by habitat destruction. The Dawei large-eyed litter frog (L. promustache) is confined to a small area of southern China (Yunnan) and adjacent north-western Vietnam (Lào Cai province).
Two species of spiny frog (Quasipaa) are threatened by habitat destruction and overcollection for human consumption. The Jiulong spiny frog (Q. jiulongensis) is known from a few localities in east-central China (Zhejiang and Fujian). Shin’s spiny frog (Q. shini) occurs in central China (Sichuan, Guizhou, Hunan and Guangxi).
Two species of tiny frog (Nanorana) are threatened by overcollection for food and subsistence wood extraction outside of protected areas. Anderson’s tiny frog (N. yunnanensis) occurs over a wide area of central and south-western China (Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Hunan, and possibly Hubei), northern Myanmar, and northern Vietnam. The Tonkin tiny frog (N. unculuanus) occurs in south-western China (Yunnan), northern Vietnam, and possibly northern Laos.
The Chuanan short-legged litter frog (Brachytarsophrys chuannanensis) is confined to a small area of central China (southern Sichuan).
Liu’s wart frog (Limnonectes liui) is known only from a small area of south-western China (southern Yunnan), but may extend into adjacent areas of Myanmar and Laos.
The Tsinpa salamander (Liua tsinpaensis) is known only from three localities in the mountains of central China (southern Shaanxi and north-eastern Sichuan).
The Yichang salamander (Hynobius chinensis) is known only from a single locality in central China (Hubei province).
Three salamanders of the genus Pseudohynobius are threatened by loss of habitat and overcollection for food and the international pet trade. The Schuicheng salamander (P. shuichengensis) is known only from a single locality in southwestern China (Guizhou). The Kuankuoshui salamander (P. kuankuoshuiensis) is known only from the Puchang- Kuankuoshui Nature Reserve in Guizhou. The yellow-spotted salamander (P. flavomaculatus) is confined to two localities in central China (Hubei and Hunan).
Three species of mountain stream salamander (Batrachuperus) are threatened by overcollection for food and ‘traditional medicine’. Schmidt’s mountain stream salamander (B. tibetanus) occurs in central China (Sichuan, Shaanxi, Qinghai, Gansu, and Tibet). Pinchon’s mountain stream salamander (B. pinchonii) is currently found in western Sichuan and north-western Yunnan, having been extirpated from south-eastern Guizhou many decades ago. The Yenyuan mountain stream salamander (B. yenyuanensis) is known from the Daliang, Daxue, and Xiaoxianglin mountain ranges of south-western Sichuan.
The red-tailed knobby newt (Tylototriton kweichowensis) is confined to the mountains of central China (western Guizhou and north-eastern Yunnan).
The Tibetan Plateau
The Tibetan Plateau (also known as the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau or Himalayan Plateau) is located in Central and East Asia. It covers much of western China (Tibet Autonomous Region, southern Xinjiang, northern Yunnan, western Sichuan, western Gansu, and Qinghai), as well as parts of northern India (Ladakh and Himachal Pradesh), Pakistan (Gilgit-Baltistan), northern Nepal, Bhutan, eastern Afghanistan, eastern Tajikistan, and southern Kyrgyzstan. The world’s highest and largest plateau, it stretches approximately 1000 km from north to south, some 2500 km from east to west and averages over 4500 m in elevation. Often referred to as the ‘Roof of the World’ or the ‘Third Pole’, it is essentially a vast, high-altitude arid steppe interspersed with mountain ranges and large, brackish lakes. It is from here that several major rivers (including the Yangtze, Mekong, and Indus) begin their long journeys to the sea. Owing to its remoteness much of the environment remains intact, with species and subspecies like the Tibetan wild ass (Equus kiang), Tibetan gazelle (Procapra picticaudata), and Tibetan grey wolf (Canis lupus filchneri) all still relatively common.
The wild yak (Bos mutus) is a large, shaggy bovid and the ancestor of the domestic yak (B. grunniens). Today it is primarily found in the cold treeless uplands of northern Tibet and western Qinghai, with a few populations extending into the southernmost parts of Xinjiang, China, and Ladakh, India. Further small, isolated populations are also found in western Tibet and eastern Qinghai. Historically the species was also found in central China, Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan, but has been extirpated there due to hunting.
The white-lipped or Thorold’s deer (Cervus albirostris), one of the largest of all deer, formerly ranged across much of the eastern Tibetan Plateau but has been much reduced by intensive hunting, both for meat as well as ‘traditional medicine’. It now occurs only in fragmented populations in remote mountainous areas of eastern Tibet, Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan, and Yunnan. The total population is estimated at around 7000.
The Tibetan brown bear (Ursus arctos pruinosus) is a little known subspecies with long, bluish fur found on the eastern Tibetan Plateau. Rarely sighted in the wild, it is threatened mainly by hunting for use in Chinese ‘traditional medicine’ and loss of habitat.
The Chinese mountain cat (Felis bieti) is a small, rare species found only on the north-eastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau. It is threatened by the organized poisoning of pikas (Ochotona sp.), which both diminishes prey and kills the cats unintentionally.
Przewalski’s gazelle (Procapra przewalskii) was formerly widespread across the high plateaus of north-western China, from the area around Lake Qinhai through Gansu to Ningxia, possibly Shanxi and Inner Mongolia. It underwent a significant decline in the 1950s due to hunting, and today is confined to around a dozen sites within five isolated areas around Lake Qinhai.
Kozlov’s pika (Ochotona koslowi) is known only from three localities in northern Tibet.
Kozlov’s shrew (Sorex kozlovi) is known only from a single locality in eastern Tibet.
The Linzhi mountain vole (Neodon linzhiensis) is known only from the Gongbu Nature Reserve in south-eastern Tibet.
The Chinese monal (Lophophorus lhuysii) is a type of pheasant confined to the mountains of central China (western Sichuan, eastern Tibet, south-eastern Qinghai, southern Gansu, and possibly north-western Yunnan). In 2000 the total population was estimated to be around 12,000 and declining.
The giant babax (Pterohinus waddelli) is a rare, thrush-like bird confined to southern Tibet and extreme north-eastern India (Sikkim).
The Sichuan jay (Perisoreus internigrans) is a rare species confined to the mountains of central China (western Sichuan, eastern Tibet, south-eastern Qinghai, and southern Gansu).
Sillem’s rosefinch (Carpodacus sillemi) was long known only from two specimens collected in 1929 from southern Xinjiang, China. In 2012 it was photographed at another locality some 1500 km away in western Qinghai province.
The Medog forest lizard (Calotes medogensis) is only known from a single locality in south-eastern Tibet.
Kaulback’s lance-headed pit viper (Protobothrops kaulbacki) is known only from Medog County (south-eastern Tibet) and from northern Myanmar.
The Zamda toad (Bufotes zamdaensis) is known only from a single high-elevation wetland locality on the south-western Tibetan Plateau.
The Medog gliding tree frog (Rhacophorus verrucopus) is known only from a single locality on the south-eastern Tibetan Plateau, but may occur more widely.
The Medog foam-nest tree frog (Gracixalus medogensis) is only known from a single specimen collected in southeastern Tibet.
The Medog frog (Liurana medogensis), Xizang frog (L. xizangensis), and the alpine frog (L. alpina) are all known only from small areas of south-eastern Tibet.
The reticulated frog (Ingerana reticulata) is known only from a small area of south-eastern Tibet.
Two species of cascade frog (Amolops) endemic to the Tibetan Plateau are threatened by loss of habitat. The Medog cascade frog (A. medogensis) and the Aniqiao cascade frog (A. aniqiaoensis) are each known only from a single locality in Medog County, on the south-eastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau.
The Medog tiny frog (Nanorana medogensis) is known only from a small area of south-eastern Tibet.
The Medog horned frog (Megophrys medogensis) is known only from a small area of south-eastern Tibet, where it is threatened by loss of habitat due to road construction and urbanization.
The Himalayan Mountains
Located in Central Asia, the Himalayas include many of the Earth’s highest peaks and separate the plains of Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. As here defined, they are spread across Bhutan, south-western China, northern India, Nepal, and northern Pakistan and are divided into two main subranges.
The Himalayan brown bear (Ursus arctos isabellinus) is a relatively small subspecies that lives in high-altitude forests and alpine meadows in northern Nepal, northern and northwestern India, and northern Pakistan. It is threatened by loss of habitat. The Himalayan black bear (U. thibetanus laniger) is a long-furred subspecies that, during the summer, can be found at high altitudes of the Himalayas and surrounding areas. In winter it tends to descend to warmer lower elevation forests.
The Himalayan Pallas’ cat (Otocolobus manul nigripectus) is a rare subspecies that occurs in the Himalayas from Kashmir to Bhutan.
The Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) is a large wild goat native to the Himalayas of southern Tibet, northern India, and Nepal, where it is threatened by hunting and habitat destruction. The species has been widely introduced to Argentina, New Zealand, South Africa, and the United States.
The Himalayan musk deer (Moschus leucogaster) occurs in parts of Afghanistan, Pakistan, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, and northern India. It is ruthlessly hunted for use in ‘traditional medicine’ and has suffered a considerable decline.
The satyr tragopan (Tragopan satyra) is a type of pheasant found patchily in the Himalayas of northern India, southern Tibet, Nepal, and Bhutan, where it is threatened by hunting and habitat destruction.
The wood snipe (Gallinago nemoricola) occurs as a vagrant throughout a wide area of Indochina and South Asia, but breeds only in the high alpine meadows of the Himalayas of northern India, Nepal, Bhutan, and southern China. It declined drastically during the early twentieth century due to hunting, which continues to be a threat in some areas. The Western Himalayas The Western Himalayas stretch from Badakhshan in northeastern Afghanistan/southern Tajikistan, through India (Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand) to central Nepal. The Himalayas capture moisture from the monsoons that sweep in from the Bay of Bengal, and most of this rainfall is expended in the eastern Himalayas. Therefore, the western Himalayas are drier, a trend reflected in the timberline that declines from 4000 m in the east to about 3500 m in the west.
The Chamba sacred langur (Semnopithecus ajax) is confined to a small area of north-western India, primarily in the Chamba Valley of Himachal Pradesh but extending somewhat into Jammu and Kashmir.
The Kashmir markhor (Capra falconeri cashmiriensis) is a type of wild goat confined to a small area of north-western India (Jammu and Kashmir) and north-eastern Pakistan, where it is threatened by military activity and competition from introduced livestock.
Two subspecies of mouflon (Ovis gmelini), a type of wild sheep previously discussed in this volume, are endemic to the Western Himalayas. The Punjab mouflon (O. g. punjabensis) is confined to the foothill forests of eastern Pakistan (Punjab). The Ladakh mouflon (O. g. vignei) is found in Ladakh and northern Pakistan, including Kashmir.
The Kashmir stag (Cervus hanglu hanglu) is confined to dense riverine forests in the Kashmir Valley and northern Chambra district of Himachal Pradesh. Up until 1947 the total population of between 3000 and 5000 was regarded as the personal property of the Maharaja of Kashmir, which gave it adequate protection. In the years after Indian independence, however, it was heavily poached and much of its habitat destroyed by domestic livestock. By 1970 the population had been reduced to just 140–170 living in the Dachigam Sanctuary (now a national park) in Kashmir, with a few small groups in Himachal Pradesh. An international conservation project helped to increase this number to over 340 by 1980, but since then the animals have been under renewed threat from local shepherds and their dogs. As of 2018 only 186 were known to survive.
The Kashmir musk deer (Moschus cupreus) is found sporadically in extreme north-western India (Jammu and Kashmir), northern Pakistan, and perhaps north-eastern Afghanistan (Nuristan province). It is seriously threatened by poaching for its prized scent glands.
The Himalayan goral (Naemorhedus goral) is a type of goat-antelope divided into two subspecies. Hodgson’s Himalayan goral (N. g. goral) is found in southern Tibet, Bhutan, eastern Nepal, and north-eastern India (Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh). Bedford’s Himalayan goral (N. g. bedfordi) is confined to northern India (Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal) and western Nepal. Both are threatened by loss of habitat and hunting for their meat.
The central Kashmir vole (Alticola montosa) is known only from two localities in north-western India and northern Pakistan.
The pale grey shrew (Crocidura pergrisea) is known only from a single locality in Pakistan-administered Kashmir.
Peters’ tube-nosed bat (Harpiola grisea) is known only from a small area of northern India (Uttarakhand).
The cheer pheasant (Catreus wallichi) occurs patchily in the western Himalayas from northern Pakistan through Kashmir and northern India to central Nepal. Widely shot for sport during the early twentieth century, it continues to be hunted and trapped for food and its eggs collected for local consumption.
The western tragopan (Tragopan melanocephalus) has a disjunct distribution in the western Himalayas from the Indus- Kohistan district of Pakistan, east through Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh to Uttarakhand in north-western India. Although historically considered to be rare, a mid-1980s population estimate of 1600–4800 was revised in the mid-1990s to around 5000 birds following the discovery of several significant populations in northern Pakistan. It is threatened by habitat destruction and hunting.
The Himalayan quail (Ophrysia superciliosa) is known only from the western Himalayas in north-western India (Uttaranchal), where about a dozen were collected near Mussooree and Naini Tal prior to 1877. It has not been recorded with certainty since then, despite numerous searches. However, quail are naturally difficult to observe and the species probably remains extant, although in small numbers.
The Kashmir flycatcher (Ficedula subrubra) breeds in the Western Himalayas of north-western India and north-eastern Pakistan, from where it migrates south to winter primarily in the mountains of Sri Lanka as well as in the Western Ghats. At one time common within its restricted range, it has declined in many areas due to habitat destruction.
The Agaupani mountain lizard (Japalura dasi) is known only from a single locality (Agaupani village in western Nepal).
The Nepal lazy toad (Scutiger nepalensis) is confined to the alpine grasslands of north-western Nepal, where it is threatened mainly by diversion of water from breeding streams.
The Chakrata cascade frog (Amolops chakrataensis) and Jaunsar’s cascade frog (A. jaunsari) are each known only from a single specimen collected in 1985 from a single locality near Chakrata in northern India (Uttarakhand). It seems likely that the two species in fact represent the same taxon, which was rediscovered in the same area in 2011.
The Rara Lake tiny frog (Nanorana rarica) is confined to a small area of north-western Nepal. Rostand’s tiny frog (N. rostandi) occurs in western and central Nepal. Dubois’ tiny frog (N. minica) is found in northern India (Uttar Pradesh and Himacahal Pradesh) and in western Nepal. All are threatened by habitat destruction.
The Eastern Himalayas
The Eastern Himalayas extend from central Nepal and across north-eastern India (Sikkim, West Bengal, and Arunachal Pradesh), Bhutan, and south-eastern Tibet to parts of northern Myanmar and south-western China (Yunnan).
The Arunachal macaque (Macaca munzala) is known only from a small area of north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh) and possibly adjacent areas of Bhutan. The white-cheeked macaque (M. leucogenys) was only recently described in 2015 from south-western China (south-eastern Tibet) and north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh). Both are threatened by hunting and loss of habitat.
The golden langur (Trachypithecus geei) is confined to forest remnants in north-eastern India (western Assam) and southern Bhutan. The capped langur (T. pileatus) remains fairly common as a species over a large area of South Asia, in both lowland as well as highland areas. Nevertheless, it has suffered considerable population declines and is considered vulnerable. The Bhutan capped langur (T. p. tenebricus) is from north-eastern India and Bhutan.
The Bhutan takin (Budorcas taxicolor whitei) is a type of goat-antelope found in high-altitude bamboo forests in northeastern India (Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim), Bhutan, and south-western China (southern Tibet). It is threatened by hunting and habitat destruction.
The Mechuka giant flying squirrel (Petaurista mechukaensis) is known only from an area of forest in north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh). Its range may extend into southwestern China.
The giant mole shrew (Anourosorex schmidi) is known only from a few specimens collected on the south-eastern slopes of the Himalayas in Bhutan and north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim).
Mandelli’s mouse-eared bat (Myotis sicarius) is known only from a few localities in north-eastern India (Sikkim and West Bengal) and Nepal, where it is threatened by deforestation. Csorba’s mouse-eared bat (M. csorbai) is known only from a few localities in Nepal. Both are threatened by loss of habitat.
The sombre serotine bat (Eptesicus tatei) is known only from its original collection in 1951 from north-eastern India (West Bengal).
Molesworth’s grey-bellied tragopan (Tragopan blythii molesworthi) is known only from eastern Bhutan, where it has not been recorded since the early 1970s.
The chestnut-breasted partridge (Arborophila mandellii) occurs in the eastern Himalayas north of the Brahmaputra River in north-eastern India (West Bengal, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh), Bhutan, and southern China (southeastern Tibet). It is threatened by hunting and loss of habitat.
The rufous-throated wren-babbler (Spelaeornis caudatus) is a rarely observed species from Nepal, Bhutan, and northeastern India (Sikkim, West Bengal, and Arunachal Pradesh), where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
The walnut kukri snake (Oligodon juglandifer) is known only from a few localities in north-western India (West Bengal), perhaps extending into western Bhutan and Sikkim.
The few-scaled worm snake (Gerrhopilus oligolepis) is known only from a small area of north-eastern India (Sikkim and West Bengal).
The Darjeeling blind snake (Indotyphlops meszoelyi) is known only from single specimen collected in north-eastern India (West Bengal).
The Darjeeling caecilian (Ichthyophis sikkimensis) is known only from a small area of north-eastern India (Sikkim and West Bengal) and extreme eastern Nepal.
The Daphla (or Dafla) Hills are a tract of hilly country in north-eastern India (Assam and south-western Arunachal Pradesh).
The Daphla Hills capped langur (Trachypithecus pileatus brahma) is confined to the Daphla Hills.
The Bugun liocichla (Liocichla bugunorum) is a rare type of passerine bird known only from a few localities within the Daphla Hills.
The Purvanchal Range
The Purvanchal Range is located in north-eastern India south of the Brahmaputra Valley (Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura, Nagaland, Meghalaya, and Mizoram) and north-western Myanmar (Chin State).
The Namdapha gliding squirrel (Biswamoyopterus biswasi) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1981 from Namdapha National Park in north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh).
The snowy-throated babbler (Stachyris oglei) is a rare species known from the Patkai and Mishmi Hills of northeastern India (Arunachal Pradesh) and adjacent northern Myanmar.
The hornbill foam-nest tree frog (Chirixalus shyamrupus) is known only from Namdapha National Park in north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh).
The Arunachal Pradesh shrub frog (Philautus namdaphaensis) is known only from two localities in north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh).
The Naga Hills
The Naga Hills are located in north-eastern India (Nagaland and Manipur) and north-western Myanmar (Chin State).
The Samagutin worm snake (Indotyphlops tenuicollis) is known only from three specimens collected in the Naga Hills.
The Nagaland bug-eyed tree frog (Theloderma nagalandense) is known only from a single locality within the Naga Hills of north-eastern India (Nagaland).
The Zunheboto horned frog (Megophrys zunhebotoensis) is known only from a single locality within the Naga Hills of north-eastern India (Nagaland).
The Mokochung tiny frog (Nanorana mokokchungensis) is known only from a single locality in north-eastern India (Nagaland).
The Mishmi Hills
The Mishmi Hills are located in north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh).
The rusty-throated wren-babbler (Spelaeornis badeigularis) was long known only from a single specimen collected in 1947 from the Mishmi Hills. It was rediscovered in the same small area in 2004, where it appears to be fairly common. The Patkai Hills The Patkai Hills are located in north-western Myanmar (Chin State) and north-eastern India (Mizoram and Tripura). The Lushai Hills (also known as the Mizo Hills) are located in north-eastern India (Mizoram and Tripura).
The Serchhip horned frog (Megophrys serchhipii) is known only from a single specimen collected in the Lushai Hills.
The Loess Plateau
The Loess Plateau, also known as the Huangtu Plateau (Huangtu Gaoyuan in Chinese), is located in central China. It covers almost all of the provinces of Shaanxi and Shanxi, and extends into parts of Gansu, Ningxia, and Inner Mongolia.
The Luliang Mountains
The Luliang Mountains (Luliang Shanmai in Chinese) are located in western Shanxi.
The Shanxi sika deer (Cervus nippon grassianus) likely occurred at one time throughout the entire Loess Plateau, although in more recent years it has been confined to two populations in the upland forests of the Luliang Mountains. One of the most mercilessly hunted deer in China, there have been no reports of it for decades and it is now believed to be extinct in the wild. Pure-bred individuals remain in farms, but there is not enough suitable habitat left for reintroduction efforts.
The Taihang Mountains
The Taihang Mountains (Taihang Shanmai in Chinese) are a mountain range running down the eastern edge of the Loess Plateau in Shanxi, Henan, and Hebei provinces.
The Taihang tiny frog (Nanorana taihangnica) is known only from a single locality in the Taihang Mountains (Henan).
The Qinling Mountains
The Qinling or Qin Mountains (Qinling Shanmai in Chinese) are a major east–west range in central China (southern Shaanxi). The mountains provide a natural boundary between northern and southern China, and support a large number of endemic species.
The Qinling giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca qinlingensis), notable for its light brown and white fur pattern, is confined to the Qinling Mountains.
The Qinling golden snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana qinlingensis) is confined to the Qinling Mountains.
The golden takin (Budorcas taxicolor bedfordi) is a type of goat-antelope confined to high-elevation areas of the Qinling Mountains.
The Wuling Mountains
The Wuling Mountains (Wuling Shanmai in Chinese) are located in central China (Guizhou and Hunan). Mount Fanjing At an altitude of 2570 m, Mount Fanjing (Fanjing Shan in Chinese) is the highest peak in the Wuling Mountains. The Fanjingshan National Nature Reserve was established in 1978. It was designated a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in 1986, and a World Heritage Site in 2018.
The grey snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus brelichi) is confined to a block of forest centring on Fanjing Mountain, south of the Yangtze in the Wuling Mountains. There have been unconfirmed anecdotal reports of a population in Jinfoshan Nature Reserve in the Dalou Mountains, but this has yet to be resolved. The total population in 2005 was estimated at around 750 individuals.
The Qionglai Mountains
The Qionglai Mountains (Qionglai Shanmai in Chinese) are located in central China (Sichuan).
Marie’s vole (Volemys musseri) is known from a few specimens collected in the alpine meadows of the Qionglai Mountains.
The Min Mountains
The Min Mountains (Min Shanmai in Chinese) are located in central China (southern Gansu and north-central Sichuan).
The snowy-cheeked laughingthrush (Garrulax sukatschewi) is confined to a few forest fragments within the Min Mountains.
The rusty-throated parrotbill (Sinosuthora przewalskii) is confined to a few forest fragments within the Min Mountains.
The Daba Mountains
The Daba Mountains (Daba Shanmai in Chinese) are located in east-central China (Sichuan, Chongqing, Shaanxi, and Hubei).
The Hubei golden-snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana hubeiensis) is confined to the Shennongjia forest region of the Daba Mountains.
The Tianmu Mountains
The Tianmu Mountains (Tianmu Shanmai in Chinese) are located in east-central China (Zhejiang).
Mount Tianmu
Mount Tianmu (Tianmu Shan in Chinese) is made up of two peaks (West Tianmu and East Tianmu). It is nominally protected as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve.
The Tianmu loach (Leptobotia tchangi) is a type of freshwater fish known only from Tianmu Mountain.
The Dabie Mountains
The Dabie Mountains (Dabie Shanmai in Chinese) are located in east-central China (Hubei, Henan, and Anhui). The western part has a relatively low elevation, though there are a few peaks rising to 900 m. The eastern part is higher, averaging 1000 m. The range is still heavily forested.
The Anhui musk deer (Moschus anhuiensis) is confined to the Dabie Mountains of western Anhui province.
The Shangcheng stout salamander (Pachyhynobius shangchengensis) is confined to the Dabie Mountains.
The Luoxiao Mountains
The Luoxiao Mountains (Luoxiao Shanmai in Chinese) are located in east-central China (Jiangxi, Hubei, and Hunan).
The Jinggang Range
The Jinggang Range (Jingang Shanmai in Chinese) is located in the remote border region of Jiangxi and Hunan provinces.
Zong’s odd-scaled snake (Achalinus jinggangensis) is known only from a few specimens collected in the Jinggang Range.
The Huangshan Mountains
The Huangshan Mountains are located in eastern China (southern Anhui).
The Huangshan horned frog (Megophrys huangshanensis) is known only from Mount Huangshan.
The Gaoligong Mountains
The Gaoligong Mountains (Gaoligong Shanmai in Chinese) are located in south-central China (western Yunnan). They straddle the border between south-western China and northern Myanmar.
The Xiaoheishan slug-eating snake (Pareas nigriceps) is known only from a type series collected on Xiaohei Hill, in the Gaoligong Mountains National Nature Reserve.
The Pianma cascade frog (Amolops bellulus) is known only from a single specimen collected in 1940 from the western slopes of Gaoligongshan.
Mount Emei
Mount Emei (Emei Shan in Chinese) is located at the western rim of the Sichuan basin in south-central China (Sichuan). It was declared a World Heritage Site in 1996.
Anderson’s shrew mole (Uropsilus andersoni) appears to be largely confined to Mount Emei.
The chevron-spotted brown frog (Rana chevronta) is known only from montane forest on Mount Emei, where it was last reported in 1983.
The Longdong stream salamander (Batrachuperus longdongensis) is known only from the Longdong River on Mount Emei.
The Hengduan Mountains
The Hengduan Mountains (Hengduan Shanmai in Chinese) are a group of mountain ranges in south-western China (Sichuan, north-western Yunnan, southern Qinghai, and eastern Tibet) and north-eastern Myanmar (Kachin State). Running north to south, they connect the south-eastern portions of the Tibetan Plateau with the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau.
The Liangshan vole (Proedromys liangshanensis) is known only from two nature reserves in south-western Sichuan.
The Gongshan wolf snake (Lycodon gongshan) is known only from two localities in Yunnan.
Ping’s lazy toad (Oreolalax pingii) is known only from two localities in the Daliang Mountains of west-central China (Sichuan).
The Puxiong salamander (Pseudohynobius puxiongensis) is known only from a few specimens collected from a single locality in Sichuan province. The Yun Mountains (Yun Ling in Chinese) are located in south-western China (north-western Yunnan and southeastern Tibet).
The black snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti) occurs only in the Yun Mountains. In 2006 the total known population was estimated at less than 2000, divided among 15 known subpopulations.
The Yangbi Yi toad (Bufo aspinius) is known only from a small area of the Yun Mountains, where it is threatened by habitat destruction.
The Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau
The Yunnan-Guizhou or Yungui Plateau (Yungui Gaoyuan in Chinese) is a highland area located in south-western China, primarily in the provinces of Yunnan and Guizhou. In the south-west it is a true plateau, while in the north-east it is a mountainous region of rolling hills, deep gorges, and karst topography.
The binturong or bearcat (Arctictis binturong) is a large viverrid still found across much of South and South East Asia, but is everywhere uncommon and threatened by hunting and habitat destruction. A number of subspecies are recognized. The Yunnan binturong (A. b. menglaensis) is confined to Yunnan.
The inquisitive shrew mole (Uropsilus investigator) is confined to high-altitude areas of south-western China (Yunnan).
The Yunnan box turtle (Cuora yunnanensis) was long known only from a few specimens collected in south-western China (Yunnan), and thought possibly to be extinct. Rediscovered in recent years, it remains rare (or perhaps extinct) in the wild but has been established in captivity.
The Puer gliding tree frog (Rhacophorus puerensis) is known only from a small area of montane forest in southwestern China (Yunnan).
The great piebald horned frog (Megophrys giganticus) is confined to montane forest in south-western China (southwestern Yunnan).
The Jingdong cascade frog (Amolops tuberodepressus) is known only from two mountains (Wuliang and Ailao) in south-western China (Yunnan).
The piebald tiny frog (Nanorana maculosa) is known only from a few localities in south-western China (central Yunnan).
The Chenggong firebelly newt (Cynops chenggongensis) is known only from a single locality in south-western China (Yunnan).
The Lijiang Mountains
The Lijiang Mountains (Lijiang Shanmai in Chinese) are located in southern China (north-western Yunnan).
The pygmy brown-toothed shrew (Chodsigoa parva) is known only from a few specimens collected in the Lijiang Mountains in the 1920s.
The Lijiang pit viper (Gloydius monticola) is confined to the mountains of southern China (north-western Yunnan).
The Ailao Mountains
The Ailao Mountains (Ailao Shanmai in Chinese) are located in south-central China (Yunnan).
The Ailao toad (Bufo ailaoanus) is known only from a single specimen collected in the Ailaoshan National Nature Reserve in 1984.
The Jingdong lazy toad (Oreolalax jingdongensis) is confined to the Ailao Mountains.
Wulian Feng
The Wulian Feng (literally ‘Five lotus peaks’) is located in south-western China (central Yunnan). More of an escarpment towering above the Jinsha (upper Yangtze) River than an actual mountain range, it forms the north-western edge of the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau.
The Wuliangshan slender litter frog (Leptolalax alpinus) is known only from the Wuliangshan National Nature Reserve, where it is threatened by subsistence wood extraction. Wuliang Mountain (Wuliang Shan in Chinese) is located in south-western Yunnan.
The Wuliang reed snake (Calamaria yunnanensis) is known only from a few specimens collected from Wuliang Mountain.
The Yunnan Plateau
The Yunnan Plateau is located in south-western Yunnan, and represents the only actual flattened portion of the Yunnan- Guizhou Plateau.
The white-handed gibbon (Hylobates lar) is divided into a small number of subspecies that were historically found throughout much of South East Asia. The Yunnan white-handed gibbon (H. l. yunnanensis) is known only from the Nangunhe Nature Reserve in south-western Yunnan, where a survey in 2007 failed to find any sign of the subspecies. It is most likely extinct.
The Yunnan bush rat (Hadromys yunnanensis) is known only from a small area of the Yunnan Plateau.
Boehme’s wolf snake (Lycodon synaptor) is known only from a small area of the Yunnan Plateau.
The Dalou Mountains
The Dalou Mountains (Dalou Shanmai in Chinese) are a limestone mountain range running some 300 km across the northern edge of the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau in Guizhou and Sichuan provinces.
The Jinfo salamander (Pseudohynobius jinfo) is confined to Mount Jinfo and Mount Baima.
The Dayao Mountains
The Dayao Mountains (Dayao Shanmai in Chinese) are located in south-eastern China (eastern Guangxi).
The Dayao gliding tree frog (Zhangixalus yaoshanensis) and the minimal gliding tree frog (Z. minimus) are both confined to the Dayao Mountains.
The Dayao bug-eyed tree frog (Theloderma kwangsiense) is known only from the Dayao Mountains.
The Miaoling Mountains
The Miaoling Mountains (Miaoling Shanmai in Chinese) are located in south-central China (south-eastern Guizhou).
The Leishan large-eyed litter frog (Leptobrachium leishanense) is known only from two localities in the Miaoling Mountains.
The Hoang Lien Son Range
The Hoang Lien Son Range is located in north-western Vietnam (Lao Cai province), near the border with China. Part of it lies within Hoang Lien National Park.
The Tonkin weasel (Mustela tonkinensis) is known only from a single specimen collected in the Hoang Lien Son Mountains.
The white-throated wren babbler (Rimator pasquieri) is confined to the montane forests of the Hoang Lien Mountains. Mount Fansipan Mount Fansipan (Phan Xi Pang in Vietnamese) is the highest mountain on the Indochinese Peninsula, rising as it does some 3143 m.
Sterling’s lazy toad (Oreolalax sterlingae) is known only from a single stream on Mount Fansipan.
The green-backed gliding tree frog (Zhangixalus dorsoviridis) is known only from Mount Fansipan, where it has been recorded only once since its discovery in the 1930s.
The Fansipan large-eyed litter frog (Leptobrachium echinatum) is known only from Mount Fansipan.
Botsford’s slender litter frog (Leptobrachella botsfordi) is known only from a single high-elevation stream on Mount Fansipan. Bourret’s slender litter frog (L. bourreti) and the rainy slender litter frog (L. pluvialis) are similarly known only from Mount Fansipan, but may range more widely.
Miscellaneous Mountains and Highlands
Mount Mang (Mang Shan in Chinese) is located in central China (southern Hunan and northern Guangdong).
The Mangshan pit viper (Protobothrops mangshanensis) is known only from Mount Mang.
Mount Taibei (Taibei Shan in Chinese) is located in central China (Shanxi).
The Taibai mountain stream salamander (Batrachuperus taibaiensis) is known only from Taibei Shan.
Mount Wawu (Wawu Shan in Chinese) is located in southcentral China (Sichuan).
The Wawu horned frog (Megophrys wawuensis) is confined to Mount Wawu.
Mount Qanning (Qanning Shan in Chinese) is located in south-central China (Sichuan).
The Qanning lazy toad (Scutiger brevipes) is known only from Mount Qanning.
Mount Longtou is located in south-central China (Guizhou).
The Longtou odorous frog (Odorrana anlungensis) is known only from Mount Longtou.
Mount Longdao (Longdao Shan in Chinese) is located in southern China (northern Guangdong).
The Longdao odorous frog (Odorrana leporipes) is known only from its original collection in the early twentieth century from Mount Longdao.
Mount Dawei (Dawei Shan in Chinese) is located in southcentral China (south-eastern Yunnan), near the border with Vietnam.
The Dawei horned toad (Megophrys daweimontis) is known only from Mount Dawei. Mount Huanglian (Huanglian Shan in Chinese) is located in south-central China (Yunnan).
The Huanglian cascade frog (Amolops caelumnoctis) is known only from Mount Huanglian, but may range more widely. Mount Mao’er (Mao’er Shan in Chinese) is located in south-eastern China (Guangxi).
The Xingan salamander (Hynobius maoershanensis) is known only from Mount Mao’er.
Mount Longwang (Longwang Shan in Chinese) is located in coastal eastern China (Zhejiang).
The Longwang salamander (Hynobius amjiensis) is confined to five small pools atop Mount Longwang.
Mount Yangming (Yangming Shan in Chinese) is located in south-eastern China (Hunan).
The Yangming frog (Rana hanluica) is known only from Mount Yangming.
Mount Tay Con Linh II is located in northern Vietnam (Ha Giang province).
The Tay Con Linh cascade frog (Amolops iriodes) is known only from Mount Tay Con Linh II.
Lowland Subtropical Moist Forests
Much of southern China and northern Vietnam were once covered by subtropical moist forests, but most disappeared long ago and today only remnants remain. Those in karstic areas in particular provide an important last refuge for many species, particularly primates.
The Cao-Vit crested gibbon (Nomascus nasutus) was historically found in north-eastern Vietnam and southern China (Guangxi and Guangdong), roughly from Ha Long Bay to the Red River delta. The species was most likely extirpated in China during the 1950s, and was feared to be possibly extinct by the early twenty-first century. However, since then a few populations have been discovered in northern Vietnam (Cao Bang province), and it is thought that more may occur in Hoa Binh and Bac Kan provinces as well. It remains one of the world’s most endangered primates.
Two leaf-eating monkeys of the genus Trachypithecus are largely or entirely confined to karst forests, where they are highly threatened by loss of habitat and hunting for use in ‘traditional medicine’. Delacour’s langur (T. delacouri) is confined to a small area of north-central Vietnam (Ninh Bình, Ha Nam, Hòa Binh, Thanh Hoa, and Ha Tay provinces), where less than 250 still survived as of 2010. There are very few in captivity, and it is feared that the only remaining viable wild population may now be in the Van Long Nature Reserve in Ninh Bình province. François’ langur (T. francoisi) occurs widely but patchily in south-central China (Chongqing, Guangxi, Guizhou, and Sichuan) and northern Vietnam.
The Cuc Phuong ferret-badger (Melogale cucphuongensis) is known only from two specimens collected from a heavily degraded forest area in northern Vietnam. It is most likely threatened by hunting.
Daovantien’s limestone rat (Tonkinomys daovantieni) is known only from the Huu Lien Nature Reserve in northeastern Vietnam (Lang Son province).
The blue-crowned laughingthrush (Pterohinus courtoisi) is a seriously threatened species with an extremely small and fragmented range in south-eastern China (Jiangxi). The bird is known in the international pet trade, and a small captivebreeding programme has been established.
The Nonggang babbler (Stachyris nonggangensis) is confined to a small area of south-western China (south-western Guangxi) and adjacent northern Vietnam.
The crocodile lizard (Shinisaurus crocodilurus) is a semiaquatic species restricted to karst mountain drainages. Two subspecies are generally recognized. The Chinese crocodile lizard (S. c. crocodilurus) is found in south-eastern China (Hunan, Guangxi, and Guizhou). The Vietnamese crocodile lizard (S. c. vietnamensis) is confined to a small area of northeastern Vietnam (Quang Ninh province). Both are threatened by habitat destruction and harvesting for the international pet trade.
The Maolan pit viper (Protobothrops maolanensis) is known only from the Maolan National Nature Reserve in south-eastern China (Guizhou). The Trung Khanh pit viper (P. trungkhanhensis) is known only from two specimens collected from the Trung Khanh Nature Reserve in northern Vietnam (Cao Bang province).
Moellendorf’s trinket snake (Elaphe moellendorffi) is known from a few lowland karst areas in southern China (Guangdong and Guangxi) and north-western Vietnam (Hoa Binh province). It is heavily traded in animal markets.
The Zhaoping tree frog (Hyla zhaopingensis) is known only from a small area in south-central China (eastern Guangxi).
The Hong Kong cascade frog (Amolops hongkongensis) is confined to a few localities in southern China (Guangdong) and Hong Kong.
The Vietnamese knobby newt (Tylototriton vietnamensis) is known only from two areas of forest in north-eastern Vietnam (Bac Giang and Quang Ninh provinces). The species is present in captivity and in the international pet trade.
Lowland Temperate Deciduous Forests
As with lowland subtropical forests there are very few areas of lowland temperate forest remaining within the Sino- Himalayan Region, the vast majority having long ago been converted for agriculture. Patches remain in central and north-eastern China.
The North China sika deer (Cervus nippon mandarinus) historically inhabited lowland forests of northern and northeastern China. Loss of habitat and intense hunting pressure had reduced it to remote areas of north-eastern China and the Qing Imperial Hunting Grounds for centuries. There have been no sightings for many decades, however, and it is now thought to be extinct in the wild. It remains fairly common in zoos and on Asian antler farms, although lack of suitable habitat makes reintroduction efforts impossible.
The Chinese water deer (Hydropotes inermis inermis) was historically found across a relatively wide area of coastal eastern China, but has since been extirpated from much of this range and is now confined to the eastern Yangtze River drainage, where it continues to decline due to hunting and habitat destruction. It was introduced to England in the 1870s, where it has thrived and indeed become something of a pest. A second introduced population in western France appears to have become extirpated.
Graham’s lizard (Diploderma grahami) is known only from a single specimen collected in the 1920s from an unspecified locality in central China (Sichuan).
The Shanxi gecko (Gekko auriverrucosus) is known only from a single specimen collected from north-central China (Shanxi). The species is possibly extinct due to loss of habitat. Isolated Caves, Springs, and Pools Southern China and northern Vietnam have extensive areas of karst and cave systems, providing habitat to a number of amphibians and fish.
The red-spotted lazy toad (Oreolalax rhodostigmatus) is known from a few limestone caves in central China (Hubei, Sichuan, Guizhou, and Hunan).
The Wuchuan odorous frog (Odorrana wuchuanensis) is known only from a single, isolated limestone cave near Baicun in south-western China (Guizhou). The total population is very small.
The Na Hang dwarf litter frog (Leptobrachella nahangensis) is known only from a cave entrance in the Na Hang Nature Reserve of northern Vietnam (Tuyen Quang province).
The Maolan salamander (Paramesotriton maolanensis) is known only from a single deep pool in the Maolan National Nature Reserve in south-eastern China (Guizhou), where it probably also lives in underground rivers.
The Jianshui cavefish (Typhlobarbus nudiventris) is confined to a single cave in southern China (Yunnan).
Several golden-line barbels (Sinocyclocheilus) are endemic to isolated caves in southern and south-central China. The duckbilled golden-line barbel (S. anatirostris) is known only from two caves within the Bailang subterranean river in southcentral China (Guangxi). The Daxiao Dong golden-line barbel (S. cyphotergous) and the angular golden-line barbel (S. angularis) are confined to south-eastern China (Guizhou). The hyaline golden-line barbel (S. hyalinus) and the eyeless golden-line barbel (S. anophthalmus) are confined to southern China (Yunnan). The small-eyed golden-line barbel (S. microphthalmus) occurs in an undefined locality in southern China.
Zheng’s stone loach (Oreonectes anophthalmus) is confined to a few caves in south-central China (Guangxi and Guizhou).
The Gejiu stone loach (Triplophysa gejiuensis) is a blind, subterranean species confined to a single underground river in south-western China (Yunnan).
The Changping stone loach (Paranemachilus genilepis) is known only from a single subterranean river in south-central China (southern Guangxi).
The Nan Tong stone loach (Yunnanilus parvus) is known only from an imprecise type locality (a cave outlet) in southern China (Yunnan).
The Guangxi cave loach (Protocobitis typhlops) is confined to a cave in south-central China (Guangxi).
Lakes, Rivers and Marshes
The Sino-Himalayan Region is not as rich as the Eurasian Region in terms of its lakes, rivers, and marshes, although those that do exist tend to be much more important in terms of biodiversity. They include the upper reaches of many important southern and South East Asian rivers, along with the Yangtze, Pearl, Yellow, and Red river systems. There are also a great many small, montane lakes in southern China along with miscellaneous other wetlands.
The white-eared night heron (Oroanassa magnificus) is found widely but patchily in southern China, Hainan, and northern Vietnam, where it is threatened by habitat destruction, hunting, and trapping.
The Japanese night-heron (Gorsachius goisagi) breeds in Japan and on Jeju Island off the Korean Peninsula, occurring at other times in the Philippines, Indonesia, parts of China, and the Russian Far East.
Swinhoe’s giant softshell turtle (Rafetus swinhoei) historically occurred in the lakes and rivers of eastern and southern China. Today, only a single living captive individual is known, an old male in the Suzhou Zoo in China. Another at the Beijing Zoo died in 2005, and a third at the Shanghai Zoo the following year; both had been caught at Gejiu in the 1970s. A few wild individuals continue to be reported. One was caught in 1998 in the Red River and subsequently released. Another semi-wild specimen of questionable taxonomy lived in a lake in Hanoi, Vietnam for many years until its death in 2016. More recently one was captured and observed several times in Dong Mo Lake west of Hanoi, and another from a nearby lake. The species is clearly extremely close to extinction.
The Chinese soft-shelled turtle (Pelodiscus sinensis) is commercially farmed in vast numbers and has been introduced to areas outside its native habitat. However, wild populations continue to be exploited for food, resulting in serious declines.
The wattle-necked softshell turtle (Palea steindachneri) is still fairly widespread in south-eastern China (Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Yunnan, and the island of Hainan), northern Laos, and northern Vietnam, but is everywhere threatened by overcollection for food. It has been introduced to Hawaii and Mauritius.
The big-headed turtle (Platysternon megacephalum) is divided into three subspecies, all of which are threatened by overcollection for use as food. The nominate form (P. m. megacephalum) is found in southern China.
Several species and subspecies of pond turtle (Mauremys) are threatened by loss of habitat, hybridization with introduced turtle species, and overcollection for use as food or pets. The Chinese stripe-necked pond turtle (M. sinensis) is found in south-eastern China (Guangdong, Fujian, and the island of Hainan), Taiwan, Laos, and northern and central Vietnam. The red-necked pond turtle (M. nigricans) is confined to southern China (Guangxi and Guangdong). Reeves’ pond turtle (M. reevesii) is native to most of temperate and subtropical China and the Korean Peninsula as well as Taiwan, Hong Kong, and parts of Japan, although the island populations may have been introduced. Populations on Timor and Palau certainly originated from human introductions. At least two subspecies of yellow pond turtle (M. mutica) occur in South East Asia. The nominate form (M. m. mutica) ranges from central Vietnam north through central and southern China, with additional insular populations on Taiwan and Hainan.
Beal’s eyed turtle (Sacalia bealei) has a relatively wide distribution in mainland China (Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, and Jiangxi), along with the island of Hong Kong, but is everywhere heavily exploited for use in ‘traditional medicine’.
The short-legged horned frog (Megophrys brachykolos) is known for certain only from Hong Kong, but may possibly also occur in other parts of south-eastern China (Fujian) and in northern Vietnam (Lang Son and Ha Bac provinces).
The Hejiang odorous frog (Odorrana hejiangensis) is known only from a small area of north-eastern Vietnam (Bac Giang province). The Junlian odorous frog (O. junlianensis) is confined to a small area of west-central China (Sichuan and Guizhou). The concave-eared odorous frog (O. tormota) is confined to a small area of eastern China (Anhui, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, and Jiangxi). All are threatened by loss of habitat and overcollection for use as food.
The Irrawaddy golden-backed frog (Hylarana margariana) is known only from two specimens collected in 1875 on the Myanmar/southern China border.
Zheng’s frog (Rana zhengi) is known only from wetlands near the village of Zhangcun in north-western China (Sichuan).
The Fujian frog (Glandirana minima) is confined to a few areas of remaining habitat in south-eastern China (eastern Fujian).
Several species of spiny frog (Quasipaa) are threatened by loss of habitat and overcollection for use as food. The little spiny frog (Q. exilispinosa) is found patchily in south-eastern China (Fujian, Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi, and the island of Hong Kong). Boulenger’s spiny frog (Q. boulengeri) is found in central and southern China and northern Vietnam. Ye’s spiny frog (Q. yei) is confined to the Dabie Mountains of eastern China (Hubei, Henan, and Anhui). David’s spiny frog (Q. spinosa) is found in central, southern, and south-western China (including the island of Hong Kong) and in northern Vietnam.
Kaulback’s cascade frog (Amolops kaulbacki) is known only from its original collection in 1940 from northern Myanmar. The Van Ban cascade frog (A. cucae) is known only from a small area of north-western Vietnam (Lao Cai province).
Two species of fully aquatic giant salamander (Andrias) are seriously threatened by overcollection for food and ‘traditional medicine’. Père David’s giant salamander (A. davidianus) is still widespread in the hillstreams of central, south-western, and southern China, primarily within the Yangtze River drainage, its range is now very fragmented. The South China giant salamander (A. sligoi) is the largest amphibian in the world, reaching as it does over a metre in length. Historically found in the Pearl River drainage south of the Nanling Mountains, it is extremely threatened and may no longer exist in the wild state.
The Chiala mountain stream salamander (Batrachuperus karlschmidti) is a largely aquatic species confined to a small area of central China (Sichuan).
The Guabangshan salamander (Hynobius guabangshanensis) is known only from a single locality in central China (Hunan province).
The Shancheng stout salamander (Pachyhynobius yunanicus) is known only from a small area of central-eastern China (Henan).
The Chinhai spiny newt (Echinotriton chinhaiensis) is confined to a small area of central coastal China (Zhejiang). Of the three known subpopulations, one has already been extirpated.
The Wanggao warty newt (Paramesotriton fuzhongensis) and the Paiyangshan warty newt (P. guangxiensis) are both confined to small areas of south-eastern China (Guangxi), where they are threatened by loss of habitat and overcollection for the international pet trade.
Three species of knobby newt (Tylototriton) are threatened by loss of habitat, pollution, and overcollection for use as food and in ‘traditional medicine’. The Anhui knobby newt (T. anhuiensis) is confined to a small area of central-eastern China (Anhui). The Dabien knobby newt (T. dabienicus) is confined to the Mount Dabien area of central-eastern China (Henen). The Wenxian knobby newt (T. wenxianensis) is found patchily in central China (southern Gansu, northern Sichuan, eastern Guizhou, and Chongqing).
The Dayang newt (Cynops orphicus) is a rare species confined to a few small areas of south-eastern China (eastern Guangdong and central Fujian).
The Yunnan carp (Cyprinus chilia) was historically known from a number of lakes on the Yunnan Plateau of southern China, but has been extirpated from most of them due to overfishing, pollution, and invasive species.
The Assamese kingfish (Cyprinion semiplotum) is confined to hillstreams in north-eastern India, Nepal, and Bhutan, where it is threatened by overfishing, habitat destruction, and pollution.
Langson’s shuttle-like carp (Luciocyprinus langsoni) occurs in both lakes and rivers in northern Vietnam (Lang Son province) and southern China (Yunnan, Gunagxi, and Guizhou). It has declined dramatically due to loss of habitat and by-catch fishery pressure.
Chu’s naked carp (Gymnocypris chui) is known only from four endorheic mountain lakes in southern and western Tibet. Günther’s naked carp (G. dobula) is known only from Lake Peigu and Lake Chuocuolong in southern Tibet. Both are threatened by overfishing.
Three species of mandarin fish (Siniperca) are threatened by overfishing and pollution. The golden mandarin fish (S. scherzeri) is found widely but patchily in China, the Korean Peninsula, and Vietnam. The big-eyed mandarin fish (S. kneri) is confined to the Yangtze and Pearl River drainages of China. The slender mandarin fish (S. roulei) is found patchily in eastern and south-eastern China.
The Yunnan snowtrout (Schizothorax yunnanensis) is known from the upper Yangtze and Mekong River drainages and from Lake Caohai in south-western China (Yunnan and Guizhou). The species historically spawned in Lake Erhai as well, but has not done so since the 1970s. Richardson’s snowtrout (S. richardsonii) is widely distributed in the Himalayan foothills of northern India, Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan, and Afghanistan, but has declined everywhere due to overfishing, dams, and the introduction of exotic fish species.
The Nam Mau barb (Spinibarbus nammauensis) is confined to Lake Ba Bê and the Nang River drainage in northern Vietnam.
The Bac Can chub (Parazacco babeensis) and Vinh’s chub (P. vinhi) are both known only from a few creeks and rivers in northern Vietnam (Bac Can province).
The Chinese large-lipped minnow (Parasinilabeo assimilis) is known from the Pearl and Yangtze river drainages, where it is threatened by loss of habitat, overfishing, and pollution.
The White Cloud Mountain minnow (Tanichthys albonubes) is a popular aquarium fish with a relatively wide but highly disjunct distribution in southern China, including the island of Hainan. It is everywhere rare in the wild due to habitat degradation and pollution.
Peters’ minnow (Pseudohemiculter dispar) is relatively widespread in south-eastern China, Vietnam, and Laos, but is threatened throughout much of its range by dam construction and pollution.
The Tsinan gudgeon (Gnathopogon tsinanensis) is confined to a small area of north-eastern China (Shangdong).
Nguyen’s goby (Rhinogobius imfasciocaudatus) is known only from a few creeks and rivers in the mountains of northern Vietnam (Ha Giang and Lai Chau provinces).
The Ky-Phu loach (Liniparhomaloptera monoloba) is known only from Ky-Phu creek in northern Vietnam.
The Nan Pang loach (Paralepidocephalus yui) is known from Yangzong and Yilong lakes and from the outflow of Jiuxiang cave in southern China (Yunnan). It is threatened by pollution.
Inglis’ stone loach (Nemacheilus inglisi) is known only from a few rivers in north-eastern India (Sikkim).
The Phong Tho stone loach (Schistura phongthoensis) is known only from a few creeks and rivers in north-western Vietnam (Lai Chau province).
Hodgart’s swamp eel (Monopterus hodgarti) is known only from its original description during the early twentieth century from north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh).
Lake Dianchi
Lake Dianchi (Dianchi Hu in Chinese; also known as Kunming Lake) is a large, high-elevation lake located in south-central China (Yunnan). Historically home to a number of endemic species, it has been devastated by overfishing, pollution, and introduced species.
The Yunnan lake newt (Cynops wolterstorffi) was confined to the shores of Lake Dianchi. It has not been reported since 1979 despite extensive surveys and is now considered extinct, a victim of habitat destruction, pollution, and introduced species.
The Dianchi carp (Cyprinus micristius) was historically found in Lake Dianchi and its tributaries, where it was a common commercial species. Not seen for many years, it is most likely extinct but may survive in the Songhuaba Reservoir.
The Dianchi nase (Xenocypris yunnanensis) began to decline in the 1970s, and was last collected in 1985. It is now most likely extinct.
The Dianchi snowtrout (Schizothorax grahami) was historically found throughout Lake Dianchi as well as its tributaries and connecting springs, but is now confined to the Muyang and Lengshui rivers and to the Black Dragon and Green Dragon springs within the Songhuaba Reservoir drainage.
The Dianchi golden-line barbel (Sinocyclocheilus grahami) has been extirpated from the lake itself due to heavy pollution, but survives in a single lake tributary and in some 20 small temple ponds.
The elongated bitterling (Acheilognathus elongatus) was historically confined to shallow inshore areas of Lake Dianchi, where it may have disappeared by the 1980s due to pollution and loss of habitat.
Two species of silver minnow (Anabarilius) historically occurred in Lake Dianchi. The big silver minnow (A. polylepis) was at one time a major commercial species, but likely disappeared from the lake by the 1970s. It may survive in the Songhuaba Reservoir. The Dianchi silver minnow (A. alburnops) has had a similar history, and is today only caught occasionally.
The Dianchi catfish (Silurus mento) was historically common, but began to be rare by the mid-twentieth century. It has not been collected since the 1970s and is likely extinct, although it may survive in some lake-connected reservoirs.
The Dianchi bullhead (Pseudobagrus medianalis) is a type of catfish that was historically common within the Lake Dianchi basin, but is now known for certain only from White Dragon Spring and Longwantan Spring (which may be connected by small, underground karst rivers) and to the Zhangjiu River. The species may also occur in a few other tributary rivers and reservoirs around the lake. It is threatened by pollution as well as from conversion of springs into fish ponds.
Two other species of bullhead (genus Liobagrus) were historically found in Lake Dianchi. King’s bullhead (L. kingi) appears to have disappeared from the lake basin in the 1960s, but may persist in two tributaries of the Jinsha River in the upper Yangtze River drainage. The black-bellied bullhead (L. nigricauda) still survives in the Lake Dianchi basin.
The Dianchi stone loach (Sphaerophysa dianchiensis) is confined to Lake Dianchi. It has not been recorded in many decades and is possibly extinct, although it may persist in isolated springs and tributaries.
The White Dragon stone loach (Yunnanilus discoloris) is entirely confined to White Dragon Spring, where the total population is thought to be less than 500. It has yet to be protected and has been heavily modified and degraded. Two other species, the black-spotted stone loach (Y. nigromaculatus), and the side-striped stone loach (Y. pleurotaenia), are also found in the Lake Dianchi and perhaps elsewhere, where they are thought to be threatened.
Lake Fuxian
Lake Fuxian (Fuxian Hu in Chinese) is located in southcentral China (Yunnan). It is the third largest lake in China, as well as the deepest. Its numerous endemic fish species have been seriously impacted by overfishing and introduced species.
The Fuxian carp (Cyprinus fuxianensis) was historically confined to the lake. Not seen after 1995, it is most likely extinct.
The Fuxian mahseer (Folifer yunnanensis) was last seen in the 1990s.
The Fuxian snowtrout (Schizothorax lepidothorax) was last recorded in the 1990s.
The Fuxian barb (Poropuntius chonglingchungi) was last recorded in the 1980s, and is most likely extinct.
The Fuxian gudgeon (Discogobio longibarbatus) was last recorded in the 1990s, and is most likely extinct.
The Fuxian golden-line barbel (Sinocyclocheilus tingi) is confined to Lake Fuxian, where it has undergone a drastic decline. The species has been successfully bred in captivity, however, and reintroduced to the lake.
Graham’s silver minnow (Anabarilius grahami) is confined to Lake Fuxian, where it is nearing extinction.
The Fuxian stone loach (Triplophysa fuxianensis) is confined to Lake Fuxian.
Two other species of stone loach (Yunnanilus), Chu’s stone loach (Y. chui) and the West Dragon Spring stone loach (Y. obtusirostrisa), were last seen in the 1990s and are possibly extinct.
Lake Qilu
Lake Qilu (Qilu Hu in Chinese) is located on the Yunnan Plateau in south-central China (Yunnan). Introduction of non-native species and overfishing have had a devastating effect on the endemic species.
Tchang’s carp (Cyprinus yunnanensis) and the Qilu carp (C. ilishaestomus) have not been reported since the late 1970s, and are likely extinct.
The Qilu silver minnow (Anabarilius qiluensis) has not been seen since the early 1980s, and is most likely extinct.
Lake Yangzong
Lake Yangzong (Yangzong Hai in Chinese) is located on the Yunnan Plateau in south-central China (Yunnan). It has been heavily impacted by industrial pollution and overfishing.
The Yangzong golden-line barbel (Sinocyclocheilus yangzongensis) is known only from Lake Yangzong.
The Yangzong silver minnow (Anabarilius yangzonensis) is endemic to Lake Yangzong, where it is very rare or possibly already extinct.
The Yangzong stone loach (Paracobitis oligolepis) is known only from Lake Yangzong.
Lake Erhai
Lake Erhai (Er Hai Hu in Chinese) is a large lake located in the mountains of south-central China (Yunnan). Its native fishes have been decimated by overfishing, pollution, and introduced species.
Four species of carp (Cyprinus) were historically endemic to Lake Erhai. The Dali carp (C. daliensis) has not been recorded since the 1960s, and is most likely extinct. The large-eyed carp (C. megalophthalmus) has not been recorded since the early 1980s, and is possibly extinct. The bearded carp (C. barbatus) and the long-finned carp (C. longipectoralis) both went unrecorded from the early 1980s and were also thought to be extinct, although a few reports since the early 2000s indicate that they may still survive in very small numbers.
The little barb (Poropuntius exiguus) and the Dali barb (P. daliensis) have not been recorded in decades, and are possibly extinct.
The Erhai sprat (Zacco taliensis) was historically confined to Lake Erhai, where it is now possibly extinct.
The Erhai stone loach (Paracobitis erhaiensis) was historically confined to Lake Erhai, where it is now possibly extinct.
The Upper Mekong River
The upper Mekong (Lancang Jiang in Chinese) is located in southern China (Tibet and Yunnan) and northern Laos. General threats include overfishing, pollution and dam construction.
The red mahseer (Tor sinensis) is known for certain only from southern China (Yunnan), but may extend into Laos, Cambodia, and Thailand.
The gold-striped danio (Devario chrysotaeniatus) is confined to tributaries and smaller streams within the upper Mekong drainage.
The upper Mekong bat-catfish (Oreoglanis setiger) is known only from a few records in the upper Mekong in south-western China (Yunnan) and the Ma Oun River in north-western Laos (Louang Namtha province).
Kloetzli’s stone loach (Schistura kloetzliae) and the largeheaded stone loach (S. macrocephalus) are both known only from the Mengla River in southern China (Yunnan) and the Youan River in north-western Laos (Luang Namtha province).
The Mengla River is located in southern China (Yunnan).
The Mengla mahseer (Tor polylepis) is known only from the Mengla River.
The Nanla River is located in southern China (Yunnan) and north-western Laos (Luang Namtha province). Its major tributary is the Youan River.
The Nanla rasbora (Rasbora septentrionalis) is confined to the Nanla and Youan rivers.
The Youan danio (Devario apopyris) is known only from a single stream in the Youan River watershed.
The Nanla goby (Rhinogobius maculicervix) is confined to the Nanla and Youan rivers.
The Nanla stone loach (Sectoria heterognathos) is confined to the Nanla and Youan rivers.
The Upper Irrawaddy River
The Irrawaddy or Ayeyarwady River flows from north to south from south-western China (Yunnan) through Myanmar to the Indian Ocean. The upper Irrawaddy, as here defined, includes the upper tributaries of south-western China and northern Myanmar (i.e. those before the confluence with the Chindwin River).
Tsao’s snowtrout (Schizothorax meridionalis) is known only from two tributaries of the upper Irrawaddy in southwestern China (Yunnan).
The Qiaojie garra (Garra qiaojiensis) is known from only two localities in south-western China (Yunnan).
The Dracula fish (Danionella dracula) was only described in 2007 from a consignment of aquarium fishes shipped to the United Kingdom, said to have originated from a stream near Sha Du Zup in northern Myanmar. The marvellous fish (D. mirifica) is similarly known only from a single locality in northern Myanmar (Kachin State).
The Putao torrent minnow (Psilorhynchus brachyrhynchus) is known only from a few localities within the upper Irrawaddy River drainage of northern Myanmar.
Malaise’s catfish (Glyptosternon malaisei) is known only from its original collection from the upper Irrawaddy River in the 1940s.
The Irrawaddy naked catfish (Batasio procerus) is known only from a few specimens collected from the upper Irrawaddy River drainage in northern Myanmar.
The Tengchong stone loach (Schistura polytaenia) is known only from a single tributary of the upper Irrawaddy in south-western China (Yunnan).
The Taping River (also known as the Daying River in China and the Ta Hkaw Kha in Myanmar) is located in south-western China (Yunnan) and northern Myanmar.
The Taping snowtrout (Schizothorax malacanthus), Taping garra (Garra bispinosa), and Taping stone loach (Schistura yingjiangensis) are all known only from the Taping River drainage.
The Nampoung River is located in south-western China (Yunnan) and northern Myanmar.
The Nampoung barb (Poropuntius margarianus) is known only from the Nampoung River.
The Upper Salween River
The Salween River is one of the largest river drainages in South East Asia, flowing some 2815 km through China, Myanmar, and Thailand to the Andaman Sea. The upper Salween River (known as the Nu Jiang in China) originates in the Tanggula Mountains on the Tibetan Plateau, and runs through southern China (Yunnan) before finally dropping into a deep gorge into north-eastern Myanmar. A series of massive dams have long been planned.
The Nujiang barb (Poropuntius opisthoptera) is confined to the upper Salween River in southern China (Yunnan).
The bihorned barbel (Tariqilabeo bicornis) is known only from a single specimen collected from the upper Salween River in the 1970s.
The Nujiang snowtrout (Schizothorax nukiangensis) is confined to the upper Salween River in Yunnan.
The Tibetan osman (Schizopygopsis thermalis) is confined to the upper Salween River drainage in Tibet.
Fea’s catfish (Pareuchiloglanis feae) is known for certain only from the upper Salween River of southern China and north-eastern Myanmar.
The Nujiang river loach (Hemimyzon nujiangensis) is confined to the upper Salween River in Yunnan.
The Nanpenghe River
The Nanpenghe River is located in southern China (Yunnan).
The Nanpenghe garra (Garra nujiangensis) is known only from the Nanpenghe River.
The Upper Ganges River
The upper Ganges (Ganga in Hindustani) rises in the western Himalayas of northern India and Nepal and flows south.
The Bonar baril (Barilius bonarensis) is a type of cyprinid fish known only from its original description in 1912 from north-western India (Uttarakhand).
The dark mahseer (Naziritor chelynoides) is confined to the headwaters of the Ganges River.
Edds’ catfish (Pseudecheneis eddsi) is known only from the Ganges River drainage in central Nepal.
The Nepalese naked catfish (Batasio macronotus) is known only from a few specimens collected from the Ganges River drainage in eastern Nepal.
The Narayani River
The Narayani River (also known as the Gandaki River) is located in Nepal.
The Rapi catfish (Erethistoides cavatura) is confined to the Rapi River, a tributary of the Narayani River in southcentral Nepal.
The Mewa Khola River
The Mewa Khola River is located in eastern Nepal.
The thicktail catfish (Pseudecheneis crassicauda) is known only from the Mewa Khola River.
The Song River
The Song River is located in north-western India (Uttarakhand).
The dimorphic baril (Barilius dimorphicus) is known only from the Song River.
The Giri River
The Giri River is located in north-western India (Himachal Pradesh).
The Giri catfish (Pseudecheneis suppaetula) is known only from the upper reaches of the Giri River.
The Upper Brahmaputra River
The upper Brahmaputra River, as here defined, begins in the mountains of Tibet as the Tsangpo River and flows down through Bhutan and north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, West Bengal, and Assam).
The blunt-nosed snowtrout (Schizothorax molesworthi) is known only from the upper Brahmaputra River drainage, where it is heavily exploited for food.
The Brahmaputra torrent catfish (Amblyceps arunchalensis) is known only from the Subansiri and Dikrong rivers in north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh).
Tikader’s stone loach (Aborichthys tikaderi) is known only from a few streams within the Brahmaputra River drainage of north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh).
The Tsangpo River
The Tsangpo River (Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibetan) is the upper stream of the Brahmaputra River, and the longest river in Tibet.
The Sattar snowtrout (Schizothorax curvilabiatus) is confined to the lower reaches of the Tsangpo River.
The Teesta River
The Teesta or Tista River is a 315-km river that rises in the eastern Himalayas. It flows through north-eastern India (Sikkim and West Bengal) before joining the Brahmaputra River in Bangladesh.
The Teesta brook carp (Neolissochilus spinulosus) is known only from the Teesta River in Sikkim, where it is considered rare.
The Teesta catfish (Pseudolaguvia foveolata) and the giant fennel catfish (P. ferula) are known only from the Teesta River drainage.
The Teesta eel-loach (Pangio apoda) is known only from the Teesta River.
The Raidak River
The Raidak River is located in Bhutan, north-eastern India (West Bengal), and Bangladesh.
The Raidak catfish (Pseudolaguvia ferruginea) is known only from a single locality within the Raidak River of northeastern India (West Bengal).
The Siren River
The Siren River is located within the upper Brahmaputra River drainage of north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh).
The Siren River catfish (Pseudecheneis sirenica) is confined to the Siren River.
The Kameng River
The Kameng River is a tributary of the Brahmaputra River located in the eastern Himalayas of north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh and Assam).
The Dirang torrent minnow (Psilorhynchus arunachalensis) is known only from the Dirang River, a tributary of the Kameng River.
The Dikrong River
The Dikrong River is located in north-eastern India (Assam and Arunachal Pradesh).
The Senkhi catfish (Erethistoides senkhiensis) is known only from Senkhi stream, a tributary of the Dikrong River.
The Dibru River
The Dibru River is a small tributary of the Brahmaputra located in north-eastern India (northern Assam).
The Dibru perch (Badis dibruensis) is known only from the Dibru River.
The Yangtze River
The Yangtze River (Chang Jiang in Chinese) is the longest river in Asia and the third longest in the world. It rises in the mountains of the Tibetan Plateau and flows some 6300 km to its mouth at the East China Sea, near Shanghai. It has been severely affected by pollution and dam construction. The Three Gorges Dam, the world’s largest hydroelectric project, will greatly alter the flow of the river and seriously affect many species.
The Yangtze River dolphin or baiji (Lipotes vexillifer) was once common along much of the central and lower Yangtze but is now considered to be functionally extinct, a victim of industrialization. The last known living individual died in 2002, although a videotape taken in 2007 appears to show one of the animals. Any remaining survivors, however, would be insufficient to save the species.
The narrow-ridged finless porpoise (Neophocaena asiaorientalis) is divided into two subspecies. The Yangtze narrowridged finless porpoise (N. a. asiaorientalis) is a freshwater species confined to the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River along with Poyang and Dongting lakes and their tributaries, although historically it was found as far as 1600 km upstream. It is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation, boat traffic, and pollution.
The Chinese alligator (Alligator sinensis) was historically widespread in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, but has declined dramatically in recent decades due to human persecution. Today it is known only from a small area of south-eastern Anhui province, mainly in small ponds. A relatively large captive population and reintroduction efforts may not be enough to ensure its survival.
The Chinese sturgeon (Acipenser sinensis) is an anadromous fish that spends most of its life out at sea, but relies on freshwater rivers for spawning. Historically found throughout the waters surrounding China, Japan, and the Korean Peninsula, it has been extirpated almost everywhere due to habitat destruction and overfishing. It is also greatly prized for use in ‘traditional medicine’. At present it spawns only in the Yangtze River, where the construction of the Gezhouba Dam in 1981 blocked its migration route. The Chinese government has made some efforts to project it, including marine reserves specifically aimed at this species and restocking through the release of juveniles in the lower parts of the Yangtze. Dabry’s sturgeon (A. dabryanus) was, under the natural, unaltered conditions that existed until the middle of the twentieth century, an inhabitant of the middle and upper reaches of the Yangtze River and its major tributaries, along with a number of large lakes within the drainage. An important species in commercial fisheries, during the late twentieth century it declined drastically due to overfishing and habitat degradation. Since the mid-1990s it has been extirpated from the lower river, and is now restricted to the upper main stream of the Yangtze in Sichuan province as well as the Ming, Tuo, and Jialing rivers.
The Chinese paddlefish (Psephurus gladius), one of the world’s largest freshwater fishes, is (or was) endemic to the Yangtze River, including the brackish water at its mouth. Its population had already greatly decreased due to overfishing and habitat degradation when, in 1981, the construction of the Gezhouba Dam in the middle reaches of the Yangtze blocked its spawning route to the upper reaches of the river system. Juveniles were last recorded in the mid-1990s and only two adult specimens have been recorded since 2002. The species is likely already extinct.
The Hubei yellowfin (Xenocypris hupeinensis) is known only from a single locality within the Yangtze River drainage in east-central China (Hubei).
Banarescu’s loach (Parabotia banarescui) is confined to the middle reaches of the Yangtze in east-central China (Hubei). Chen’s loach (P. lijiangensis) is known only from the Li and Xiang rivers of south-eastern China (Guangxi and Hunan).
The imperial flower loach (Leptobotia elongata) is confined to the upper and middle Yangtze River drainage in Hubei and Hunan provinces, where it has been extirpated from many areas due to disruption of its migration paths, habitat degradation, and pollution.
The Jinsha River
The Jinsha River (Jinsha Jiang) is the Chinese name for the upper stretches of the Yangtze in central and south-western China (Qinghai, Sichuan, and Yunnan).
The Sichuan taimen (Hucho bleekeri) is a type of salmon endemic to the headwaters of the Yangtze River drainage, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and overfishing.
Tchang’s sharpbelly (Hemiculter tchangi) is known only from the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in central Chinga (Sichuan).
The Jinsha stone loach (Triplophysa grahami) is confined to the Jinsha River and tributaries in Yunnan.
Lake Quinshui is located within the Jinsha River drainage in south-western China (Sichuan).
The Quinshui silver minnow (Anabarilius xundianensis) is confined to Lake Quinshui.
The Yuan River
The Yuan River is located in southern and south-eastern China (Guizhou and Hunan).
The Yuan stone loach (Triplophysa xiangxensis) is a cavedwelling species confined to the Yuan River in Hunan.
Lake Dongting is a large, shallow lake located in northeastern Hunan.
The Dongting mountain catfish (Glyptothorax sinensis) is known only from Lake Dongting.
The Li River
The Li River (Li Jiang in Chinese) is located in south-eastern China (Guangxi province).
The Li zebra loach (Sinibotia zebra) is known only from the Li River.
The Pearl River
The Pearl River (Zhu Jiang in Chinese, and formerly known as the Canton River) is an extensive river system in south-eastern China and northern Vietnam. The name is essentially a catchall for the combined watersheds of the Xi, Bei, and Dong rivers, which share a common delta.
Reeves’ noodlefish (Salanx reevesii) is known only from the Pearl River drainage in Guangdong province.
The Pearl River bangana (Bangana decorus) is known from the Pearl River drainage in Yunnan, Guangdong, and Guangxi provinces, where it has been impacted by damming and pollution.
Richardson’s armoured catfish (Cranoglanis bouderius) was historically widespread and common within the Pearl River drainage, but has suffered significant declines due to overfishing and other factors.
The Pearl River loach (Sinibotia robusta) is confined to the Pearl River drainage.
The Lia Jiang loach (Vanmanenia homalocephala) is known only from a single locality within the Pearl River.
Lin’s spined loach (Cobitis arenae) is known only from the Xi and Dong rivers, tributaries of the Pearl River in southern China.
The Xi River
The Xi River (Xi Jiang in Chinese) is the largest and westernmost of the Pearl River tributaries. It is formed by the confluence of the Gui and Xun rivers in Guangxi, and flows east through Guangdong before entering the Pearl River delta just east of the Lingyang Gorge in Zhaoqing.
The Xiangzhou icefish (Neosalanx argentea) is known only from its original description in the 1930s from the city of Xiangzhou (Guangdong).
Hoffmann’s amblatikas (Toxabramis hoffmanni) is known only from a single locality in Guangxi province, China. The Xi gudgeon (Gobiobotia meridionalis) is confined to the Xi River drainage.
Jordan’s ratmouth barbel (Ptychidio jordani) and the bigeye ratmouth barbel (P. macrops) are both found patchily within the Xi River drainage, where they are seriously threatened by overfishing.
The Xi loach (Erromyzon sinensis) is confined to the Xi River drainage.
The golden zebra loach (Sinibotia pulchra) is known from the Liu and Gui rivers, tributaries of the Xi River.
The Xi stone loach (Oreonectes furcocaudalis) is a type of cavefish known from a single locality in the Xi River (an outlet of subterranean waters near Rongshui in Guangxi)
The Nanpan River (Nanpan Jiang in Chinese) is located in southern China (Yunnan, Guizhou, and Guangxi). Part of its course is blocked by the Tianshengqiao Dam, from which Lake Wanfeng is formed.
The Nanpan garra (Garra yiliangensis) is known only from a single specimen collected in the 1960s from a hillstream in southern China (Yunnan).
The Nanpan silver minnow (Anabarilius maculatus) is confined to the Nanpan River and a few associated reservoirs. The Zuo River (Zuo Jiang in Chinese) is located in southern China (Guangxi).
The Zuo carp (Cyprinus longzhouensis) is known for certain only from the upper Zuo River drainage.
The Hongshuihe River is located is located in southern China (Guangxi).
Wu’s fish (Discocheilus wui) is known only from the Hongshuihe River drainage.
The Na-Ri River is located in northern Vietnam (Lang Son and Cao Bang provinces).
The Na-Ri shovel-jaw carp (Onychostoma uniforme) is known only from the Na-Ri River.
The Dong River
The Dong River is located in south-eastern China (Guangdong). It is the most easterly tributary of the Pearl River.
The Dong River mountain catfish (Glyptothorax pallozonus) is known only from the Dong River drainage.
The Thuong River
The Thuong River is located in north-eastern Vietnam (Lang Son province).
The Thuong bitterling (Acheilognathus elongatoides) is known only from the Thuong River.
The Yellow River
The Yellow River (Huang He in Chinese) is the second longest river in Asia. It originates in the Bayan Har Mountains of Qinqhai province, western China, and meanders east for about 1900 km before emptying into the Bohai Sea.
The Tengger water frog (Pelophylax tenggerensis) is endemic to a small area along the banks of the Yellow River in north-central China (Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region), on the edge of the Tengerr Desert.
The Yellow River gudgeon (Squalidus intermedius) is known only from its type locality near the town of Jinan, in the Yellow River drainage.
The Red River System
The Red River (Hong He in Chinese/Song Hong in Vietnamese) is located in south-western China (Yunnan) and northern Vietnam. The confluence of its main tributaries, the Black and Lo rivers, forms a very broad main channel in north-eastern coastal Vietnam that flows past the city of Hanoi before spreading out again through the Red River delta and thence into the Gulf of Tonkin. The delta was once highly productive, but is now almost devoid of fish due to extensive flood control and the closure of floodplain fish breeding and nursery areas.
The Red River carp (Cyprinus quidatensis) is confined to the Red River drainage of northern Vietnam.
The Red River carp-minnow (Pseudolaubuca hotaya) is confined to the Red River drainage of northern Vietnam.
The Tonkin bangana (Vinalabeo tonkinensis) is confined to the Red River drainage.
The Hong bitterling (Rhodeus vietnamensis) is known only from the Red River drainage on the Chinese/ Vietnamese border.
The Red River sharpbelly (Hemiculter songhongensis) is confined to the Red River drainage of northern Vietnam.
The Black River
The Black River (Song Da in Vietnamese, and known as the Lixian River in China) is located in southern China (Yunnan province) and north-western Vietnam (Lai Chau, Son La, Lao Cai, Phu Tho, and Hoa Binh provinces). It is the principal tributary of the Red River.
Nguyen’s carp (Cyprinus hyperdorsalis) and Da’s carp (C. dai) have not been recorded since the construction of the Hoa Binh dams in the 1990s, and are possibly extinct.
The Suoi Rut barb (Poropuntius brevispinus) is known only from the Suoi Rut stream within the Black River drainage.
The Hoa Binh barb (Spinibarbus vittatus) is known only from the Black River in north-western Vietnam (Hoa Binh province).
The Lai Chau catfish (Hemibagrus songdaensis) is known only from the upper Black River in north-western Vietnam (Lai Chau province).
The Black River stone loach (Schistura callichromus) is known only from a single tributary in Yunnan, China, but may occur in other parts of the Black River drainage.
Mai’s hillstream loach (Beaufortia daon) is known only from a few creeks and small rivers within the Black River drainage of north-western Vietnam (Lai Chau province).
The Bua River (Nam Bua in Vietnamese) is located in north-western Vietnam (Son La and Phu Tho provinces).
The Bua suckerbelly loach (Pseudogastromyzon buas) is known only from the Bua River drainage.
The Na River (Nam Na in Vietnamese) is located in northwestern Vietnam (Lai Chau province).
The Na freshwater sleeper (Neodontobutis macropectoralis) is a type of goby known only from the Na River.
The Phong Tho catfish (Pareuchiloglanis phongthoensis) is known only from the Na River drainage.
The Na hillstream loach (Sinogastromyzon namnaensis) is known only from the Na River.
The Mu River (Nam Mu in Vietnamese) is located in north-western Vietnam (Lai Chau province).
The Nam Mu catfish (Pareuchiloglanis dorsoarcus) is known only from the Mu River drainage.
The Dê River (Nam Dê in Vietnamese) is located in northwestern Vietnam (Lai Chau province).
The Dê catfish (Pareuchiloglanis namdeensis) is known only from the Dê River drainage.
The So River (Nam So in Vietnamese) is located in northwestern Vietnam (Lai Chau province).
The So hillstream loach (Sinogastromyzon hypercorpus) is known only from the So River drainage.
The Ngoi Bo River (Nam Ngoi Bo in Vietnamese) is located in north-western Vietnam (Lao Cai province).
The Ngoi Bo catfish (Tachysurus longispinalis) is known only from the Ngoi Bo River drainage.
The Tengtiao River (Tengtiao Jiang in Chinese) is located in southern China (Yunnan) and north-western Vietnam (Lai Chau province).
The Tengtiao stone loach (Schistura macrotaenia) is known only from the Tengtiao River.
The Lo River
The Lo River (Song Lo in Vietnamese) is located in southern China (Yunnan) and northern Vietnam (Ha Giang, Lai Chai, Tuyen Quang, and Phu Tho provinces).
The Lo steed (Hemibarbus songloensis) is a type of barb known only from the Lo River drainage.
The Lo goby (Rhinogobius longipinnis) is known from the Lo River drainage and from the Nui Coc reservoir and its feeding streams.
The Ha Giang catfish (Pareuchiloglanis rhabdurus) is known only from a small area of the Lo River.
The Ha Giang hillstream loach (Sinogastromyzon hagiangensis) is confined to small rivers and creeks within the Lo River drainage.
The Ha Giang stone loach (Schistura hagiangensis) is known only from the Lo River in northern Vietnam (Ha Giang province).
Nguyen’s stone loach (Balitora nigrocorpa) is known only from the Lo River drainage.
The Mu River is located in north-western Vietnam (Lai Chai and Ha Giang provinces).
The Laichow garra (Vinagarra laichowensis) is known only from a few specimens collected from the Mu River.
The Mu spined loach (Cobitis guttata) is known only from a few specimens collected from the Mu River.
The Gam River (Song Gam in Vietnamese) originates in Guangxi, China and flows through northern Vietnam (Tuyen Quang province).
The Gam barb (Spinibarbus ovalius), Gam steed (Hemibarbus thacmoensis), Gam catfish (Hemibagrus chiemhoaensis), Nahang loach (Vanmanenia nahangensis), Gam river loach (Hemimyzon songamensis), Vancuong’s loach (Parabotia vancuongi), Kimluan’s loach (P. kimluani), Vanlan’s stone loach (Balitora vanlani), Vanlong’s stone loach (B. vanlongi), and Haithanh’s stone loach (B. haithanhi) are all known only from the Gam River drainage.
The Chay River is located in northern Vietnam (Tuyen Quang province).
The Chay torrent catfish (Nahangbagrus songamensis) is known only from six specimens collected from the Chay River.
The Cau River (Song Cau in Vietnamese) is located in northern Vietnam (Bac Thai, Bac Giang, and Bac Ninh provinces).
The Cau loach (Vanmanenia ventrosquamata) is known only from the Cau River drainage.
Miscellaneous Lakes, Rivers, and Marshes
Lake Xigong (Xigong Hu in Chinese) is an endorheic (closed) mountain lake located 1300 m above sea level in the lower Tsangbo (Brahmaputra) River drainage, Tibet.
The Xigong snowtrout (Schizothorax integrilabiatus) is confined to Xigong Lake and nearby mountain streams.
Lake Langtso (Langtso Hu in Chinese) is an endorheic (closed) mountain lake located 4300 m above sea level in southern Tibet.
The Langtso naked carp (Gymnocypris scleracanthus) is confined to Lake Langtso.
Lake Xingjun (Xingyun Hu in Chinese) is a plateau lake located in southern China (Yunnan).
Anderson’s silver minnow (Anabarilius andersoni) is confined to Lake Xingjun, where it is threatened by habitat degradation and overfishing. Lake Hulun (Hulun Hu in Chinese, and also known as Lake Dalai) is a large but shallow lake located in Inner Mongolia, northern China.
The Hulun stickleback (Pungitius stenurus) is confined to Lake Hulun, where it is potentially threatened by declining water levels.
Lake Yilong (Yi Long Hu in Chinese) is a large lake in Yunnan, southern China.
The Yilong carp (Cyprinus yilongensis) and the Yilong silver minnow (Anabarilius macrolepis) both became extinct in 1981 when water extraction for agriculture caused the lake to dry up for an extended period.
Lake Qiong (Qiong Hai in Chinese) is located on the Yunnan Plateau in south-western China. The Qiong carp (Cyprinus qionghaiensis) is confined to Qiong Lake, where it is very rare or possibly already extinct owing to pollution, overfishing, and competition with introduced species.
Lake Thac Ba (Ho Thac Ba in Vietnamese) is a man-made lake located in north-eastern Vietnam (Yen Bai province). It was created by the construction of the Thac Ba hydroelectric plant in the 1960s, and named for the Ba Falls which preexisted the dam.
The Thac Ba minnow (Tanichthys thacbaensis) and Thac Ba spiny eel (Mastacembelus thacbaensis) are both confined to Lake Thac Ba.
Lake Rara is a deep, high-elevation lake located in the Himalayas of north-western Nepal. While set within Rara National Park and a designated Ramsar site, pollution and overfishing remain threats.
The Rara snowtrout (Schizothorax raraensis) and the Nepalese snowtrout (S. nepalensis) are both confined to Lake Rara and adjoining streams.
Lake Nui Coc (Ho Nui Coc in Vietnamese) is a man-made lake located in northern Vietnam.
The Nui Coc mangrove goby (Mugilogobius nuicocensis) is known only from Lake Nui Coc, although it would appear that the species originates from another freshwater lake or river.
Lake Ho (Ho Tay in Vietnamese) is located near Hanoi in northern Vietnam.
The Lake Ho gudgeon (Hypseleotris hotayensis) and the Hanoi amblatikas (Toxabramis hotayensis) are both confined to Lake Ho.
The Datangze Marsh is a small endorheic basin located in southern China (Yunnan).
The large-stomached stone loach (Yunnanilus macrogaster), black stone loach (Y. niger), and Datangze stone loach (Y. paludosus) are all confined to the Datangze Marsh.
The Upper Indus River originates high on the western Tibetan Plateau and flows more than 3000 km through the Himalayas of north-western India and north-eastern Pakistan.
The Kumaon snowtrout (Schizothorax kumaonensis) is a rare species from the upper reaches of the Indus River drainage.
The Qiantang River (also known as the Fuchun River) is located in eastern China (Zheijang).
Tung’s gudgeon (Gobiobotia tungi) is confined to the Qiantang River.
The Nho Que River (Song Nho Que in Vietnamese) is located in northern Vietnam and southern China.
The Nho Que barb (Acrossocheilus baolacensis) is confined to the Nho Que River. The Ky Cung River is located in northern Vietnam (Lang Son province).
The Ky Cung sharpbelly (Hemiculter elongatus) is confined to the Ky Cung River.
The Tam Duong River is located in north-western Vietnam (Lai Châu province).
The Tam Duong garra (Garra bibarbatus) is confined to the Tam Duong River.
Coasts and Satellite Islands
This section includes the coast of eastern and south-eastern China and its satellite islands (including Taiwan and Hong Kong), along with the Japanese Archipelago.
The short-tailed or Steller’s albatross (Phoebastria albatrus) came perilously close to extinction. It was hunted on an almost industrial scale for its feathers during the latter half of the nineteenth century, when by some estimates upwards of ten million birds were killed, and was reduced to just a couple of thousand by the early twentieth century. By the 1930s the only survivors were on Torishima, south of Japan, where hunting continued until the Japanese finally declared a ban in 1933. This measure appeared to have come too late, however. In 1949 the species was declared extinct on the island, although a small number of birds, most likely juveniles, were still thought to survive at sea. When 23 of the latter eventually returned to the island they were carefully protected, and by 1954 they began to breed. The population recovered steadily thereafter and began to disperse into other parts of their historical range. As of 2014 the total was estimated at 4200, the majority of which still nest on Torishima, but there are now additional nesting colonies on at least two other Pacific islands (Minami-kojima and Kita-Kojima in the East China Sea). Some limited breeding activity has also recently been reported on Kure and Midway in the Hawaiian Islands, and during the non-breeding season the birds once again range across the northern Pacific.
The Japanese murrelet (Synthliboramphus wumizusume) is a marine bird that breeds on uninhabited islands of central and southern Japan and other coastal areas of the Korean Peninsula and perhaps the Russian Far East, where it has been much reduced in number.
The Chinese crested tern (Thalasseus bernsteini) historically bred in island colonies along the East China coast and wintered in Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines. The species was decimated during the twentieth century by excessive hunting and egg collection and thought to be extinct. In 2000, however, four pairs along with four chicks were rediscovered nesting in a greater crested tern (T. bergii) colony on an islet in the Matsu Islands, off the coast of Fujian province. Two other small island populations have since been found in China and one in South Korea, though the total number is still thought to be less than 50.
Bennett’s water snake (Enhydris bennettii) is known only from a small number of specimens collected from the coastal salt marshes and estuaries of southern China and the island of Hainan.
The harpist frog (Babina okinavana) is confined to Taiwan and to Ishigaki and Iriomote in the Yaeyama Islands of Japan.
Anderson’s crocodile newt (Echinotriton andersoni) is currently known from six islands in the Ryukyu Islands. There are old records from Mount Kuanyinshan on Taiwan as well, but the species is presumed to be extirpated there. It is threatened by loss of habitat and overcollection for the international pet trade.
The Japanese Archipelago
The Japanese Archipelago is a group of 6852 islands extending over 3000 km along the north-eastern coast of the Eurasian continent, from the Sea of Okhotsk to the Philippine Sea. The northernmost islands are centred in the temperate zone, but the southern extremity reaches the subtropics. They are strongly affected by the monsoons and are characterized by humidity, high rainfall, and warm temperatures, all of which produce a rich vegetation. The great number of high volcanoes and mountains add a subarctic zone to this spectrum of climates and gives rise to a wide range of habitats. As much as 80 per cent of Japan is filled by mountains, of which the highest, Mount Fuji, is 3776 m. Long densely populated, the country’s remarkable industrial development has inevitably damaged its natural habitats. However, the Japanese were also pioneering in conservation in eastern Asia, their deplorable whaling record notwithstanding. Ijima’s leaf warbler (Phylloscopus ijimae) breeds mainly on the Izu Islands south of the Japanese main islands, as well as on Nakanoshima in the Tokara Islands, from where it winters in the Ryukyu Islands and perhaps Taiwan and the Philippines. The species has declined significantly since the 1970s due to loss of habitat and pesticide use.
The well earthworm goby (Luciogobius pallidus) and the cave goby (L. albus) are both confined to coastal and island cave systems throughout Japan.
The Japanese Main Islands
The Japanese main islands include the northernmost and four largest – Kyushu, Shikoku, Honshu, and Hokkaido – within the Japanese Archipelago.
The Japanese grey wolf (Canis lupus hodophilax) lived on Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu, where it was much persecuted because it preyed on cattle. The last of these small wolves seems to have been killed in 1904 or 1905.
The Japanese black bear (Ursus thibetanus japanicus) was historically found on Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu, but has been extirpated from the latter island.
The Japanese river otter (Lutra lutra whiteleyi) was historically widespread and common in Japan, and indeed during the 1880s could even be seen in Tokyo. Heavily hunted for its pelt as well as for use in ‘traditional medicine’, the subspecies underwent a significant decline in the early twentieth century and after that was only rarely recorded. It was officially declared extinct in 2012, although in 2017 a wild otter was photographed on Tsushima Island.
The frosted mouse-eared bat (Myotis pruinosus) is found patchily across Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
Endo’s pipistrelle (Pipistrellus endoi) is a type of bat confined to a handful of scattered localities in Honshu and Shikoku, where it is declining.
The copper pheasant (Syrmaticus soemmerringii) was historically common on Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu, but has declined considerably due to overhunting. During the 1970s the number of birds taken went from c.800,000 to c.300,000 per year, but appeared to stabilize at around 100,000 per year during the 1990s. It is now considered uncommon and difficult to find, if not actually threatened. There are five subspecies. Soemmering’s copper pheasant (S. s. soemmerringii) is found in northern and central Kyushu. The scintillating copper pheasant (S. s. scintillans) is found in northern and central Honshu. The Shikoku copper pheasant (S. s. intermedius) is found in south-western Honshu and Shikoku. The Pacific copper pheasant (S. s. subrufus) is found in south-eastern Honshu and south-western Shikoku. The Ijimia copper pheasant (S. s. ijimae) is confined to southeastern Kyushu.
The yellow bunting (Emberiza sulphurata) breeds only on the Japanese main islands, from where it is thought to migrate mainly to the Philippines in winter. Generally uncommon, it declined significantly during the twentieth century due to habitat destruction, pesticides, and hunting.
The Japanese giant salamander (Andrias japonicus) is confined to the rivers of western Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu, where it has greatly decreased in recent decades due to overharvesting (for food and ‘traditional medicine’), habitat destruction and degradation, and hybridization with introduced Père David’s giant salamanders (A. davidianus).
Three species of salamander (Hynobius) are threatened by loss of habitat and overcollection for the pet trade. Kato’s salamander (H. katoi) is confined to the mountains of southern Honshu. The Oita salamander (H. dunni) is confined to small areas of Kyushu and Shikoku. The Odaigahara salamander (H. boulengeri) is confined to areas of southern Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu.
The amago salmon (Oncorhynchus masou macrostomus) is endemic to freshwater streams in western Japan (Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu).
The deepbody bitterling (Acheilognathus longipinnis) is a type of cyprinid fish confined to four rivers in central and southern Japan. It is threatened by channelization, dams, pollution, and competition with introduced species.
Smith’s bitterling (Rhodeus smithii) was historically widespread in Kyushu and western Honshu prior to World War II, but has declined dramatically due to loss of habitat and introduced fish species.
Honshu
Honshu is the largest and most populous island of Japan.
The Etigo mole (Mogera etigo) is confined to the Echigo Plain on Honshu, where it is threatened by agricultural expansion.
The Honshu noctule (Nyctalus furvus) is a type of bat known only from a few records.
The Honshu short-tailed bat (Eptesicus japonensis) is found patchily in the mountains of central Honshu. It is threatened by loss of habitat and human disturbance of its roosting sites.
Four salamanders of the genus Hynobius are endemic to Honshu, where they are threatened by loss of habitat and overcollection for the pet trade. Abe’s salamander (H. abei), the Hokuriku salamander (H. takedai), and the Hakuba salamander (H. hidamontanus) are all known only from a few areas in south-central Honshu. The Tokyo salamander (H. tokyoensis) is confined to a small area of south-central Honshu.
The Kirikuchi char (Salvelinus japonicus) is a type of freshwater fish confined to two headwater streams within the Totsu River drainage in central Honshu.
The stumpy bullhead (Pseudobagrus ichikawai) is confined to a few rivers in Honshu.
The Tokyo bitterling (Tanakia tanago) is confined to an area near Tokyo where it is threatened by urbanization.
Lake Biwa (Biwa-ko in Japanese) is located in west-central Honshu. It is the largest freshwater lake in Japan.
The Biwa salmon (Oncorhynchus masou masou) is confined to Lake Biwa.
The kissing loach (Parabotia curtus) is confined to Lake Biwa and a few rivers.
Hokkaido
Hokkaido is the northernmost and second largest of the main Japanese islands.
The nominate form of Blakiston’s eagle-owl (Bubo blakistoni blakistoni), the largest living owl in the world, is restricted to a small area on Hokkaido and to Kunashir Island in the southern Kuril Islands.
Kyushu
Kyushu is the most south-westerly of the four main Japanese islands.
The Kyushu bitterling (Rhodeus atremius) is confined to northern Kyushu, where it is threatened by loss of habitat, pollution, and collection for the international aquarium trade.
The Ariake dwarf icefish (Neosalanx regani) is confined to estuarine areas in north-western Kyushu, where it is threatened by dam construction.
Tsushima
Tsushima is a small island located in the Korea Strait, approximately halfway between the Japanese mainland and the Korean Peninsula.
The Tsushima tube-nosed bat (Murina tenebrosa) is known for certain only from a single specimen collected in 1962 on Tsushima, although a bat collected on Yaku Island may represent the same species. There is only a small patch of forest remaining on Tsushima and very few caves available for roosting.
The Oki Islands
The Oki Islands (Oki-shoto in Japanese) are an archipelago located in the Sea of Japan. Volcanic in origin, only 4 of the 16 named islands are permanently inhabited. Much of the archipelago lies within the borders of Daisen-Oki National Park.
The Oki salamander (Hynobius okiensis) is confined to Dogo Island in the Oki Islands.
The Izu Islands
The Izu Islands (Izu-shoto in Japanese) are a volcanic archipelago stretching south and east from the Izu Peninsula of Honshu.
The Izu robin (Larvivora tanensis) is confined to the Izu Islands.
The Izu thrush (Turdus celaenops) is mostly confined to the Izu Islands, although a few birds move to adjacent parts of the Honshu and the Shikoku Islands during the winters. There are also small numbers on Yakushima and Tokara in the northern Ryukyu Islands.
The Ryukyu Islands
The Ryukyu Islands (Ryukyu-shoto in Japanese, and also known as the Nansei Islands) consist of numerous large and small subtropical islands lying in a chain between southern Japan and Taiwan. The larger of these islands are volcanic in origin, with mountainous terrain, while the smaller ones are mostly formations of coral. All contain forests of leafy trees that flourish in the wet, subtropical climate.
The Ryukyu tree rat (Diplothrix legata) is found only in the mountains of the western Amami islands and northern Okinawa.
The Ryukyu mouse-eared bat (Myotis yanbarensis) is confined to mature forests on Okinawa, Amami, and Tokunoshima.
The Ryukyu tube-nosed bat (Murina ryukyuana) is confined to Okinawa, Tokuno, and Amami islands.
The Japanese long-fingered bat (Miniopterus fuscus) is known from Honshu (where it was last collected in 1933) and sporadically throughout the Ryukyu Islands. It is threatened by disturbance of its cave roosting sites.
The Ryukyu woodcock (Scolopax mira) is confined to the islands of Amami, Kakeromajima, Tokunoshima, Okinawa, and Tokashikijima.
Kam’s yellow pond turtle (Mauremys mutica kami) is confined to the Ryukyu Islands.
The Ryukyu odd-scaled snake (Achalinus werneri) is confined to Amami, Kakeromajimia, and Tokunoshima in the Amami Islands and to Okinawa and Tokashijima in the Okinawa Islands.
The sword-tailed newt (Cynops ensicauda) is confined to 12 islands in the Amami and Okinawa island groups.
The Ryukyu Ayu-fish (Plecoglossus altivelis ryukyuensis) is confined to the Ryukyu Islands.
The Amami Islands
The Amami Islands (Amami-gunto in Japanese) are a group of small, limestone coralline islands located between southernmost Kyushu and Okinawa in the northern Ryukyu Islands. They include Amami, Kikaijima, Kakeromajima, Yoroshima, Ukejima, Tokunoshima, Okinoerabujima, Yoronjima, Edateku, Sukomobanare, Yubanare, Kiyama, and Eniya.
The Amami rabbit (Pentalagus furnessi) is a small, darkfurred species confined to Amami and Tokuno islands. Often called a living fossil, it is a survivor of a group of ancient rabbits that once lived on the Asian mainland but have long since died out. Prior to 1921 it was heavily hunted and trapped, but since 1921 it has been completely protected, although loss of habitat and introduced predators remain a threat.
The Amami spiny rat (Tokudaia osimensis) is confined to a few areas on Amami Island. The Tokunoshima spiny rat (T. tokunoshimensis) is confined to mountainous areas on Tokunoshima Island.
The Amami shrew (Crocidura orii) is confined to the islands of Amami, Tokunoshima, and Kakeromajima.
The Amami woodpecker (Dendrocopos owstoni) is confined to mature hill forests on Amami Island.
The Amami jay (Garrulus lidthi) is confined to Amami, Kakeroma, Uke, and Edateku. In the 1970s the population was estimated at around 5800, but underwent a major decline in the 1990s from which it appears to be recovering once more.
The Amami thrush (Zoothera major) is known only from the central and western parts of Amami and from Kakeromajima (where it may now be extirpated).
The Otton frog (Babina subaspera) is confined to Amami and Kakeroma islands, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and introduced predators.
Two species of odorous frog (Odorrana) endemic to the Amami Islands are threatened by loss of habitat. The splendid odorous frog (Odorrana splendida) is confined to Amami. The Amami odorous frog (O. amamiensis) is confined to Amami and Tokunoshima.
The Okinawa Islands
The Okinawa Islands (Okinawa-shoto in Japanese) are a group of large and small islands located roughly 640 km south of the Japanese main islands and 500 km north of Taiwan.
The Ryukyu wood pigeon (Columba jouyi) was endemic to Okinawa and the Kerama and Daito Islands. Known only from a few specimens collected during the nineteenth century, it apparently declined rapidly (and inexplicably). It was last recorded on Okinawa in 1904 and on Daito in 1936.
The Ryukyu black-breasted leaf turtle (Geoemyda japonica) is confined to Okinawa, Kume, and perhaps Tokashiki. In 1975 it was designated a National Natural Monument of Japan. It is threatened by illegal collection for the international exotic pet trade.
Two species of ground gecko (Gonturosaurus) are endemic to the Okinawa Islands. The spotted ground gecko (G. orientalis) is confined to four small islands (Tonakijima, Tokashikijima, Iejima, and Akajima). Kuroiwa’s ground gecko (G. kuroiwae) is confined to Okinawa and three adjacent islands (Kourijima, Sesokojima, and Yagajijima).
Holst’s frog (Babina holsti) is confined to scattered localities on Okinawa and Tokashikijima.
Okinawa (Okinawa-jima in Japanese) is the main island of the Okinawa Island group and the largest of all the Ryukyu Islands. The island’s subtropical climate supports a dense forest in the north.
The Okinawa spiny rat (Tokudaia muenninki) is confined to forests of northern Okinawa, where it is very rare.
The Okinawa flying fox (Pteropus loochoensis) is known only from three specimens of unknown provenance, but is thought to have been collected on Okinawa during the nineteenth century.
The Okinawa rail (Hypotaenidia okinawae) is a nearly flightless bird only just discovered in 1981 in a small area of forest in northern Okinawa. It is threatened mainly by the introduced Javan mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) and habitat fragmentation.
The Okinawa woodpecker (Dendrocopos noguchii) is confined to the remaining virgin montane and coastal forests of Okinawa, where it nearly went extinct during the 1930s. In the early 1990s the total population was estimated at between 150 and 585.
The Okinawa odorous frog (Odorrana narina) and Ishikawa’s odorous frog (O. ishikawae) are both confined to northern Okinawa.
Namiye’s wart frog (Limnonectes namiyei) is confined to northern Okinawa.
Kume Island (Kumejima in Japanese) is located west of Okinawa.
Yamashina’s ground gecko (Goniurosaurus yamashinae) is confined to Kume Island, where it is threatened by loss of habitat.
Kikuzato’s stream snake (Opisthotropis kikuzatoi) is an aquatic species confined to two hilly streams located in the north and south of the island, respectively. Intervening habitats have been completely converted for cultivated lands and residential areas.
Iheya Island (Iheya-jima in Japanese) is located in the East China Sea, north-west of Okinawa.
Toyama’s ground gecko (Goniurosaurus toyami) is confined to this single small island, where it is threatened by deforestation due to development.
The Senkaku Islands (Senkaku-shoto in Japanese) are a group of uninhabited islands located north-east of Taiwan in the East China Sea.
The Senkaku mole (Mogera uchidai) is known only from a single specimen collected on Uotsuri Island in 1991.
The Kerama Islands (Kerama-shoto in Japanese) are a group of 22 islands located 32 km south-west of Okinawa.
The Kerama sika deer (Cervus nippon keramae) is confined to Yakabi Island, where the total population is only about 30.
The Miyako Islands
The Miyako Islands (Miyako-retto in Japanese) are located in the southern Ryukyus, near Taiwan.
The Miyako kingfisher (Todiramphus cinnamomina miyakoensis) is known only from a single specimen collected on Miyako Island in 1887. It likely became extinct soon after.
The Miyako grass lizard (Takydromus toyamai) is confined to the Miyako Island group.
Pfeffer’s reed snake (Calamaria pfefferi) is confined to Miyakojima and Irabujima.
The Yaeyama Islands
Located south-west of the Miyako Islands, the Yaeyama Islands (Yaeyama-shoto in Japanese) are the most remote part of Japan.
The Ryukyu yellow-margined box turtle (Cuora flavomarginata evelynae) is confined to Ishigaki and Iriomote.
Iwasaki’s slug-eating snake (Pareas iwasakii) is confined to Ishigaki and Iriomote, where it is uncommon.
Utsunomiyas’ odorous frog (Odorrana utsunomiyaorum) and the greater odorous frog (O. supranarina) are both confined to Ishigaki and Iriomote.
Iriomote Island (Iriomote-jima in Japanese) is the largest of the Yaeyama Islands.
The Iriomote leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis iriomotensis) is confined to Iriomote, where the total population is around 100.
The imperial stiphodon (Stiphodon imperiorientis) is a type of freshwater goby confined to the Nakama River on Iriomote.
Taiwan
Taiwan is a large subtropical island located about 180 km off the south-eastern coast of China. The eastern two-thirds of the island consist mostly of rugged mountains running in five ranges from north to south, with the remaining third being a flat coastal plain. It once had a rich diversity of habitats, but the human population explosion has destroyed most of the forests.
The Taiwanese clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa brachyurus) was historically confined to Taiwan, where it gradually driven into remote mountain areas by extensive hunting pressure and habitat destruction. The subspecies was last definitely reported from Tawu Mountain Nature Reserve in 1983, although in 1989 the skin of a young individual was found within the area of Taroko National Park. There was further possible evidence of survival near Yushan National Park during the 1990s, but extensive camera-trap surveys since have failed to reveal any further trace of it. Alleged sightings in 2018 are doubtful.
The Taiwanese black bear (Ursus thibetanus formosanus) is confined to areas of montane forest.
The Taiwanese sambar deer (Rusa unicolor swinhoii) is confined to Taiwan.
The Taiwanese sika deer (Cervus nippon taiouanus) was completely extirpated in terms of free-ranging populations due to hunting by the end of the 1960s. Fortunately, a large captive population existed and, beginning in the 1980s, groups have been established in protected areas on the island.
The Taiwanese yellow-throated marten (Martes flavigula chrysospila) is a rare and little-known subspecies confined to Taiwan.
The lesser Taiwanese shrew (Chodsigoa sodalis) is known only from five specimens collected from montane forest.
The Mikado pheasant (Syrmaticus mikado) is confined to the mountains of central and southern Taiwan, where it was at one time seriously threatened by hunting. The species has since recovered somewhat and is protected within Yushan National Park and other areas.
Swinhoe’s pheasant (Lophura swinhoii) is also confined to the mountains of central and southern Taiwan. Much reduced in number by hunting in the mid-1970s, it has since recovered somewhat but remains threatened outside of protected areas by habitat destruction.
Styan’s bulbul (Pycnonotus taivanus) is a type of passerine bird confined to eastern and southern Taiwan.
The Taiwanese yellow-margined box turtle (Cuora flavomarginata flavomarginata) is confined to Taiwan, where it is seriously threatened by agricultural expansion.
Maki’s keelback (Hebius miyajimae) is confined to central and northern Taiwan.
The Koshun worm snake (Argyrophis koshunensis) is known only from a few specimens collected in the 1930s.
Two tree frogs of the genus Zhangixalus are threatened by loss of habitat. The farmland tree frog (Z. arvalis) is confined to agricultural areas in south-western Taiwan. The orangebellied tree frog (Z. aurantiventris) is found patchily throughout the islands.
The Taipa frog (Rana longicrus) is confined to northern and western Taiwan. The Taiwanese groove-toed frog (R. sauteri) is confined to lowland areas of western Taiwan. Both are threatened by habitat destruction and pollution.
Stejneger’s paddy frog (Micryletta steinegeri) is known only from a few areas in central and southern Taiwan.
Three salamanders of the genus Hynobius are endemic to the Central Mountains, where they are threatened by loss of habitat. The Formosa salamander (H. formosanus), Taichu salamander (H. sonani), and the Arisan salamander (H. arisanensis) are all very rare and confined to a few areas of undisturbed montane conifer forest.
The Taiwanese salmon (Oncorhynchus masou formosanus) is a very rare, landlocked form known only from a few streams.
The Taiwanese shovel-jaw carp (Onychostoma alticorpus) is confined to five river drainages on Taiwan, where it is threatened by siltation, dam construction, and pollution.
The Taitung river loach (Hemimyzon taitungensis) is confined to streams of the Central Mountain Range.
The Taiwanese hillstream loach (Sinogastromyzon puliensis) is confined to a few rivers in western Taiwan.
Orchid Island
Orchid Island (Lan Yu in Chinese) is a tiny island located off the south-eastern coast of Taiwan.
The Botel gecko (Gekko kikuchii) is largely confined to coastal cliffs on the southern part of Orchid Island, where it remains common.
Hong Kong
Hong Kong and its various satellite islands are located on the eastern side of the Pearl River estuary in southern China. Originally a lightly populated area of farming and fishing villages, today it is one of the most densely populated places on Earth. Remaining undeveloped terrain is largely hilly to mountainous with very little flat land.
Hollinrake’s bronzeback tree snake (Dendrelaphis hollinrakei) is confined to Shek Kwu Chau, a small island located west of Hong Kong.
Lazell’s blind snake (Indotyphlops lazelli) is known only from two specimens collected in a drainage ditch on Hong Kong Island.
Romer’s shrub frog (Liuixalus romeri) was historically restricted to the islands of Lantau, Lamma, Chek Lap Kok, and Po Toi. With the construction of an airport on Chek Lap Kok, however, it was decided to translocate that population to suitable sites on Hong Kong Island and the Chinese mainland.
Cat Ba Island
Cat Ba Island is the largest of the 367 islands of the Ca Ba Archipelago in Ha Long Bay, off the north-eastern coast of Vietnam. Approximately half its area is covered by a national park.
The Cat Ba langur (Trachypithecus poliocephalus) is confined to a small area of Cat Ba Island mostly within the national park, where in 2006 the total population was just 64.
The Cat Ba tiger gecko (Goniurosaurus catbaensis) is known only from Cat Ba Island, although it may possibly occur as well on other islands in Ha Long Bay.
Anthropogenic effects on the flora and fauna
Archaelogical evidence suggests that early hominids inhabited China some 2.25 million years ago. Remains of Peking Man, a subspecies of Homo erectus who used fire, were first discovered within the Zhoukoudian Cave, near Beijing in northern China, in 1926. He and his kind lived there in a cool, steppe, and forest region between 780,000 and 680,000 years ago alongside rhinos, elephants, bears, and big cats. The first modern human remains were discovered in Fuyan Cave, Hunan and date from 125,000 to 80,000 years ago. According to Chinese tradition the first dynasty emerged around 2100 bc. A Palaeolithic culture from around 30,000 bc constitutes the first known inhabitants of the islands of Japan. Owing to this long period of habitation, the Sino-Himalayan Region as a whole has been the scene of habitat destruction on a massive scale. Once largely covered by forests, today only a tiny fraction remains. One notable consequence of this is that they are no longer there to control the rivers, which frequently flood the lowlands, with catastrophic results.
While there had been contact between China and the Western world for many centuries by way of the Silk Route, it was the Portuguese who were the first modern Europeans to truly explore the region. In 1513 Jorge Álvares became the first to reach China by sea, landing on Nei Lingding Island in the Pearl River delta. Thirty years later, in 1542 or 1543, an expedition reached the Osumi Islands of southern Japan, and in 1589 João da Gama visited ‘Yezo’ (Hokkaido). Meanwhile, further south, the missionary Bento de Góis travelled overland from India to China between 1602 and 1606 by way of Afghanistan and the Pamirs. The priest and explorer António de Andrade became the first known European to cross the Himalayas, reaching Tibet in 1624. Shortly thereafter, the Jesuit missionaries Estêvão Cacella and João Cabral would also cross the Himalayas and become the first to enter both Bhutan and Nepal. Dutch and Austrian expeditions as well would follow during the later seventeenth century. During the eighteenth century this part of Asia was opened up for trade, even as certain kingdoms remained stubbornly closed off to foreigners. In 1904 the British explorer Francis Younghusband led a notable expedition to Tibet, and in 1913 his countrymen Frederick Bailey and Henry Morshead explored the Tsangpo Gorge and the route of the Yarlung Tsangpo (upper Brahmaputra) River. More recently, in 1953 Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay became the first people to ascend Mount Everest, and Lino Lacedelli and Achille Compagnoni the first to ascend K2 during the Italian Karakoram Expedition of 1954.
While this area of Asia has long been heavily populated, it was until the mid-twentieth century that a truly massive population explosion began, one that shows no signs of levelling off. As a result, China’s lakes and rivers are heavily polluted. Moreover, a series of monumental hydroelectric projects have dammed the great rivers to the detriment of the fauna as well as the fertility of the surrounding plains. Most seriously of all, at least in terms of native species, is the overcollection of virtually anything that moves for both human consumption as well as ‘traditional medicine’, which is discussed in the introductory sections.
In recent historical time (i.e. since ad 1500), the Sino- Himalayan Region has lost at least 14 species/1 subspecies of vertebrates. Among the extinct forms, 1 subspecies is a mammal, 1 species is a bird, 1 species is an amphibian, and 12 species are freshwater fishes. Another 23 species/2 subspecies are possibly extinct.
In addition, there are 606 species/58 subspecies currently threatened with extinction (that is to say, either Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable according to the IUCN Red List, as well as certain forms either listed as Data Deficient or Not Assessed but which are clearly at some risk of extinction). Of these, 92 species/42 subspecies are mammals, 61 species/9 subspecies are birds, 65 species/3 subspecies are reptiles, 181 species are amphibians, and 208 species/4 subspecies are freshwater fishes.